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  • Review Article
  • Published:

Reproductive hazards of space travel in women and men

Nature Reviews Endocrinology volume 15, pages 713–730 (2019)Cite this article

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An Author Correction to this article was published on 30 October 2019

This article has been updated

Abstract

Extended travel in deep space poses potential hazards to the reproductive function of female and male astronauts, including exposure to cosmic radiation, microgravity, increased gravity (hypergravity), psychological stress, physical stress and circadian rhythm disruptions. This Review focuses on the effects of microgravity, hypergravity and cosmic radiation. Cosmic radiation contains protons, helium nuclei and high charge and energy (HZE) particles. Studies performed on Earth in which rodents were exposed to experimentally generated HZE particles have demonstrated a high sensitivity of ovarian follicles and spermatogenic cells to HZE particles. Exposure to microgravity during space flight and to simulated microgravity on Earth disrupts spermatogenesis and testicular testosterone synthesis in rodents, whereas the male reproductive system seems to adapt to exposure to moderate hypergravity. A few studies have investigated the effects of microgravity on female reproduction, with findings of disrupted oestrous cycling and in vitro follicle development being cause for concern. Many remaining data gaps need to be addressed, including the effects of microgravity, hypergravity and space radiation on the male and female reproductive tracts, hypothalamic–pituitary regulation of reproduction and prenatal development of the reproductive system as well as the combined effects of the multiple reproductive hazards encountered in space.

Key points

  • Space travel exposes astronauts to multiple potential reproductive hazards, including cosmic radiation, microgravity and hypergravity.

  • Oocytes and their surrounding ovarian somatic cells as well as differentiating testicular spermatogenic cells are highly sensitive to destruction by high charge and energy particles typical of space radiation.

  • Exposure to high charge and energy particles results in accelerated depletion of the ovarian reserve and premature ovarian failure; by contrast, spermatogonial stem cells in the testis are fairly radioresistant, allowing spermatogenesis to recover.

  • Long-term exposure to microgravity during low Earth orbit and simulated microgravity on Earth decreased spermatogenesis; serum and testicular concentrations of testosterone were decreased in some studies and unchanged in others.

  • Exposure to microgravity during the second half of pregnancy does not cause major disruptions of fetal development or parturition in rodents.

  • Exposure to hypergravity during mating and through the neonatal period decreases pregnancy rates and neonatal offspring survival in rodents.

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Fig. 1: Proposed mechanisms of HZE particle radiation-induced destruction of ovarian follicles.
Fig. 2: Proposed mechanisms of HZE particle radiation-induced destruction of testicular germ cells.

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Change history

  • 30 October 2019

    An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

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Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge funding support from National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI) (B.M.), U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, NIH National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS, National Institutes of Health; grant number R01ES020454) (U.L.) and National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA; grant number NNX14AC50G) (U.L.).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Human Nutrition, Food and Animal Sciences, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA

    Birendra Mishra

  2. Center for Occupational and Environmental Health, Department of Medicine, Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, Program in Public Health, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA

    Ulrike Luderer

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  1. Birendra Mishra
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  2. Ulrike Luderer
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Contributions

B.M. researched data for the article and reviewed and edited the manuscript before submission. U.L. researched data for the article, contributed to discussion of the content, wrote the article, and reviewed and edited the manuscript before submission.

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Correspondence to Ulrike Luderer.

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Nature Reviews Endocrinology thanks F. Strollo and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

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Glossary

Ionizing radiation

Radiation that carries sufficient energy to detach electrons from atoms or molecules, ionizing them.

Microgravity

Gravity near zero g; the condition in which people or objects appear to be weightless.

Hypergravity

Conditions in which the force of gravity exceeds that on Earth’s surface, which is 1 g.

Linear energy transfer

The amount of energy transferred from the charged particle as it traverses a cell or tissue per unit of path length.

Centrifugation

The application of centrifugal force to increase the effective gravitational force for experimental purposes.

Vaginal oestrus

Vaginal cytology consisting of keratinized epithelial cells; this cytology characterizes oestrus, the day of the rodent oestrous cycle when ovulation occurs.

Secondary follicle

The next stage of follicular development after primary follicles; characterized by more than one layer of cuboidal granulosa cells and theca cell layers outside the granulosa cell layers.

Zona pellucida

The layer of glycoprotein that surrounds the oocyte plasma membrane; during fertilization, the sperm binds to specific proteins within the zona pellucida.

Shear stress

The force acting on an object or surface parallel to the plane or slope in which it lies.

Preovulatory follicles

Mature ovarian follicles capable of ovulating in response to a luteinizing hormone surge.

Primordial follicles

Quiescent ovarian follicles that are arrested in the first meiotic prophase; characterized by an incomplete layer of squamous granulosa cells.

Primary follicles

The next stage of follicular development after primordial follicles; characterized by a single layer of cuboidal granulosa cells or a layer of mixed squamous and cuboidal granulosa cells.

Relative biological effectiveness

The ratio of absorbed dose of one type of radiation compared with the absorbed dose of another type of radiation that gives an identical biological effect.

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Mishra, B., Luderer, U. Reproductive hazards of space travel in women and men. Nat Rev Endocrinol 15, 713–730 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-019-0267-6

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