Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Review Article
  • Published:

From laboratory innovations to materials manufacturing for lithium-based batteries

Abstract

While great progress has been witnessed in unlocking the potential of new battery materials in the laboratory, further stepping into materials and components manufacturing requires us to identify and tackle scientific challenges from very different viewpoints. It is not uncommon that practical considerations prove insurmountable after scientists make promising discoveries in the laboratory. Herein, we discuss the knowledge gap between materials research and cost-effective materials scale-up for further industry manufacturing. From a few grams of materials synthesis in the laboratory to kilograms and tons of mass production, there are many blind spots in terms of yields, impurities and quality control in which materials science can play a key role but is overlooked. With a focus on next-generation lithium ion and lithium metal batteries, we briefly review challenges and opportunities in scaling up lithium-based battery materials and components to accelerate future low-cost battery manufacturing.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Rent or buy this article

Prices vary by article type

from$1.95

to$39.95

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1: Research cycles in small-scale laboratory synthesis and large-scale manufacturing.
Fig. 2: Challenges in large-scale coating of Ni-rich NMC cathodes.
Fig. 3: Manufacturing strategies of lithium metal foils with different types of metallurgic non-uniformity and their impacts on stripping of lithium metals.
Fig. 4: Comparison of different current collectors.
Fig. 5: Illustration of integrated nearline and online characterization for analysing battery materials and monitoring electrode processing and gauging system for electrode manufacturing.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Nitta, N., Wu, F., Lee, J. T. & Yushin, G. Li ion battery materials: present and future. Mater. Today 18, 252–264 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Liu, J. et al. Pathways for practical high-energy long-cycling lithium metal batteries. Nat. Energy 4, 180–186 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. National Blueprint for Lithium Batteries 2021–2030 (DOE, 2021).

  4. Sun, H. H. et al. Transition metal-doped Ni-rich layered cathode materials for durable Li ion batteries. Nat. Commun. 12, 6552 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Zuo, X., Zhu, J., Müller-Buschbaum, P. & Cheng, Y.-J. Silicon based lithium ion battery anodes: a chronicle perspective review. Nano Energy 31, 113–143 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Zhang, J.-G., Xu, W., Xiao, J., Cao, X. & Liu, J. Lithium metal anodes with nonaqueous electrolytes. Chem. Rev. 120, 13312–13348 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Kwade, A. et al. Current status and challenges for automotive battery production technologies. Nat. Energy 3, 290–300 (2018). This paper summarizes the state-of-the-art Li ion battery production process from electrode and cell production to module and pack assembly.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Duffner, F. et al. Post-lithium-ion battery cell production and its compatibility with lithium ion cell production infrastructure. Nat. Energy 6, 123–134 (2021). This article discusses cell production of post-lithium-ion batteries by examining the industrial-scale manufacturing of Li ion batteries, sodium ion batteries, lithium sulfur batteries, lithium air batteries and solid-state batteries.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Schmuch, R., Wagner, R., Hörpel, G., Placke, T. & Winter, M. Performance and cost of materials for lithium-based rechargeable automotive batteries. Nat. Energy 3, 267–278 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Wentker, M., Greenwood, M. & Leker, J. A bottom-up approach to lithium-ion battery cost modeling with a focus on cathode active materials. Energies 12, 504 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Li, H. et al. Synthesis of single crystal LiNi0.88Co0.09Al0.03O2 with a two-step lithiation method. J. Electrochem. Soc. 166, A1956 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Jung, R. et al. Effect of ambient storage on the degradation of Ni-rich positive electrode materials (NMC811) for Li-ion batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 165, A132 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Faenza, N. V. et al. Editors’ Choice—Growth of ambient induced surface impurity species on layered positive electrode materials and impact on electrochemical performance. J. Electrochem. Soc. 164, A3727 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Zhai, Y. et al. Improving the cycling and air-storage stability of LiNi0.8Co0.1Mn0.1O2 through integrated surface/interface/doping engineering. J. Mater. Chem. A 8, 5234–5245 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Carlson, C. Meeting Nickel Demand for Lithium-Ion Batteries Will Be a Challenge https://feeco.com/meeting-nickel-demand-for-lithium-ion-batteries-will-be-a-challenge/ (FEECO, 2023).

  16. S&P Global Nickel pig ion–matte conversion could be a game changer for the battery industry. Commodity Insights https://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/market-insights/podcasts/platts-future-energy/041321-nickel-battery-tsingshan-ev-pig-iron-matte-energy-transition (2021).

  17. Ma, X. et al. Recycled cathode materials enabled superior performance for lithium-ion batteries. Joule 5, 2955–2970 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Malik, M., Chan, K. H. & Azimi, G. Review on the synthesis of LiNixMnyCo1−xyO2 (NMC) cathodes for lithium-ion batteries. Mater. Today Energy 28, 101066 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Zheng, L., Bennett, J. C. & Obrovac, M. N. All-dry synthesis of single crystal NMC cathode materials for Li-ion batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 167, 130536 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Noritake Roller Hearth Kiln https://www.noritake.co.jp/eng/products/eeg/subs/detail/127/ (2022).

  21. Lv, D. et al. High energy density lithium–sulfur batteries: challenges of thick sulfur cathodes. Adv. Energy Mater. 5, 1402290 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Xiao, J. Understanding the lithium sulfur battery system at relevant scales. Adv. Energy Mater. 5, 1501102 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Shi, L. et al. Reaction heterogeneity in practical high-energy lithium–sulfur pouch cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 13, 3620–3632 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Chen, S. et al. High-efficiency lithium metal batteries with fire-retardant electrolytes. Joule 2, 1548–1558 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Xiao, J. et al. Perspective—Electrochemistry in understanding and designing electrochemical energy storage systems. J. Electrochem. Soc. 169, 010524 (2022). This article discusses the designing principles of industry-relevant pouch cells and cylindrical cells for EV and grid energy storage application.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Niu, C. et al. Balancing interfacial reactions to achieve long cycle life in high-energy lithium metal batteries. Nat. Energy 6, 723–732 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Bi, Y., Li, Q., Yi, R. & Xiao, J. To pave the way for large-scale electrode processing of moisture-sensitive Ni-rich cathodes. J. Electrochem. Soc. 169, 020521 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Ross, G. J., Watts, J. F., Hill, M. P. & Morrissey, P. Surface modification of poly(vinylidene fluoride) by alkaline treatment. Degrad. Mech. Polym. 41, 1685–1696 (2000).

    Google Scholar 

  29. Cho, D.-H. et al. Effect of residual lithium compounds on layer Ni-rich Li[Ni0.7Mn0.3]O2. J. Electrochem. Soc. 161, A920 (2014).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Xiao, J. Scaling Up of High-Performance Single Crystalline Ni-Rich Cathode Materials Annual merit review meeting (US Department of Energy Vehicle Technology Office, 2022).

  31. Liu, H., Yang, Y. & Zhang, J. Investigation and improvement on the storage property of LiNi0.8Co0.2O2 as a cathode material for lithium ion batteries. J. Power Sources 162, 644–650 (2006). This article studies the storage issue of LiNi0.8Co0.2O2 with the findings generally applicable in all Ni-rich cathodes.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Jin, L. et al. Pre-lithiation strategies for next-generation practical lithium-ion batteries. Adv. Sci. 8, 2005031 (2021). This review article surveys different prelithiation approaches for Li ion batteries.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Obrovac, M. N. & Chevrier, V. L. Alloy negative electrodes for Li-ion batteries. Chem. Rev. 114, 11444–11502 (2014).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Krause, L. J., Brandt, T., Chevrier, V. L. & Jensen, L. D. Surface area increase of silicon alloys in Li-ion full cells measured by isothermal heat flow calorimetry. J. Electrochem. Soc. 164, A2277 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Du, A. et al. Recent research progress of silicon-based anode materials for lithium-ion batteries. ChemistrySelect 7, e202201269 (2022).

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  36. Chae, S. et al. A micrometer-sized silicon/carbon composite anode synthesized by impregnation of petroleum pitch in nanoporous silicon. Adv. Mater. 33, 2103095 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Reynier, Y. et al. Practical implementation of Li doped SiO in high energy density 21700 cell. J. Power Sources 450, 227699 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Eshetu, G. G. et al. Production of high-energy Li ion batteries comprising silicon-containing anodes and insertion-type cathodes. Nat. Commun. 12, 5459 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Vidal, D. et al. Si–C/G based anode swelling and porosity evolution in 18650 casing and in pouch cell. J. Power Sources 514, 230552 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Berhaut, C. L. et al. Prelithiation of silicon/graphite composite anodes: benefits and mechanisms for long-lasting Li-ion batteries. Energy Storage Mater. 29, 190–197 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Sato, Y. Electrowinning of metallic lithium from molten salts. ECS Proc. Vol. 2002-19, 771–778 (2002).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Zhang, X., Han, A. & Yang, Y. Review on the production of high-purity lithium metal. J. Mater. Chem. A 8, 22455–22466 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Shi, F. et al. Strong texturing of lithium metal in batteries. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 114, 12138–12143 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Schulz, S. C. Sputtering of lithium. US patent US6,039,850A (1995).

  45. Bates, J. B., Dudney, N. J., Neudecker, B., Ueda, A. & Evans, C. D. Thin-film lithium and lithium ion batteries. Solid State Ion. 135, 33–45 (2000).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Kurt J. Lesker Company. Lithium (Li) Pieces Evaporation Materials https://www.lesker.com/newweb/deposition_materials/depositionmaterials_evaporationmaterials_1.cfm?pgid=li1 (2023).

  47. Porthault, H. & Decaux, C. Electrodeposition of lithium metal thin films and its application in all-solid-state microbatteries. Electrochim. Acta 194, 330–337 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Xiao, J. How lithium dendrites form in liquid batteries. Science 366, 426–427 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Shi, F. et al. Lithium metal stripping beneath the solid electrolyte interphase. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 115, 8529–8534 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Zhao, J. et al. Surface fluorination of reactive battery anode materials for enhanced stability. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 139, 11550–11558 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Ye, Y. et al. Ultralight and fire-extinguishing current collectors for high-energy and high-safety lithium ion batteries. Nat. Energy 5, 786–793 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Niu, C. et al. High-energy lithium metal pouch cells with limited anode swelling and long stable cycles. Nat. Energy 4, 551–559 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Alvarez, S. Redwood Materials Shares Plans to Ramp Copper Foil Production to 100 GWh https://www.teslarati.com/tesla-battery-recycling-redwood-materials-100-gwh-goal/ (TESLARATI, 2022).

  54. Xiao, J., Liu, J., Lee, H., Liu, D. & Niu, C. Lithium metal pouch cells and methods of making the same. US patent US20200274148A1 (2020).

  55. Niu, C. et al. Self-smoothing anode for achieving high-energy lithium metal batteries under realistic conditions. Nat. Nanotechnol. 14, 594–601 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Zhu, P. et al. A review of current collectors for lithium ion batteries. J. Power Sources 485, 229321 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Cho, J.-H., Li, X. & Picraux, S. T. The effect of metal silicide formation on silicon nanowire-based lithium ion battery anode capacity. J. Power Sources 205, 467–473 (2012).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Tan, D. H. S., Banerjee, A., Chen, Z. & Meng, Y. S. From nanoscale interface characterization to sustainable energy storage using all-solid-state batteries. Nat. Nanotechnol. 15, 170–180 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Wu, B. et al. Good practices for rechargeable lithium metal batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 166, A4141–A4149 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Patel, D., Robinson, J. B., Ball, S., Brett, D. J. L. & Shearing, P. R. Thermal runaway of a Li-ion battery studied by combined ARC and multi-length scale X-ray CT. J. Electrochem. Soc. 167, 090511 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Ruther, R. E. et al. Chemical evolution in silicon–graphite composite anodes investigated by vibrational spectroscopy. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10, 18641–18649 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Benavente, L. et al. FTIR mapping as a simple and powerful approach to study membrane coating and fouling. J. Membr. Sci. 520, 477–489 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Christian, M. J. & Alain, M. In situ Raman analyses of electrode materials for Li ion batteries. AIMS Mater. Sci. 5, 650–698 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Hollricher, K., Strom, D. & Schmidt, U. Looking into batteries with Raman correlative RISE microscopy studies of Li-ion cells. Imaging Microsc. 23, 14–15 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  65. Degarmo, E., Black, J. and Kohser, R. Materials and Processes in Manufacturing 9th edn (Wiley, 2003).

  66. Yang, L., Chen, H.-S., Song, W.-L. & Fang, D. Effect of defects on diffusion behaviors of lithium-ion battery electrodes: in situ optical observation and simulation. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10, 43623–43630 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Lu, Y. et al. Dry electrode technology, the rising star in solid-state battery industrialization. Matter 5, 876–898 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Deng, Z. et al. Ultrasonic scanning to observe wetting and ‘unwetting’ in Li-ion pouch cells. Joule 4, 2017–2029 (2020). This article discusses the application of non-destructive ultrasonic scanning approach to map wetted areas in lithium ion pouch cells.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work is jointly supported by the Vehicle Technologies Office (VTO) and Advanced Manufacturing Office (AMO) of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE), US Department of Energy, through a joint programme under award number DE-LC-000L080. J.X. thanks VTO’s Advanced Battery Materials Research Program (Battery500 Consortium) for support. Discussion on silicon materials is supported by VTO’s Silicon Consortium Project. PNNL is operated by Battelle for the Department of Energy under contract DE-AC05-76RLO1830.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jie Xiao.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Peer review

Peer review information

Nature Energy thanks the anonymous reviewers for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Xiao, J., Shi, F., Glossmann, T. et al. From laboratory innovations to materials manufacturing for lithium-based batteries. Nat Energy 8, 329–339 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-023-01221-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-023-01221-y

This article is cited by

Search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing