Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Review Article
  • Published:

Bridging the gap between highly active oxygen reduction reaction catalysts and effective catalyst layers for proton exchange membrane fuel cells

Nature Energy volume 6, pages 475–486 (2021)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

Ultralow platinum loading and high catalytic performance at the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) level are essential for reducing the cost of proton exchange membrane fuel cells. The past decade has seen substantial progress in developing a variety of highly active platinum-based catalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction. However, these high activities are almost exclusively obtained from rotating disk electrode (RDE) measurements and have rarely translated into MEA performance. In this Review, we elucidate the intrinsic limitations that lead to a persistent failure to transfer catalysts’ high RDE activities into maximized MEA performance. We discuss catalyst-layer engineering strategies for controlling mass transport resistances at local catalyst sites, in the bulk of the catalyst layer and at the interfaces of the MEA to achieve high performance with ultralow platinum loading. We also examine promising intermediate testing methods for closing the gap between RDE and MEA experiments.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1: Evolution of market size for fuel-cell electrical vehicles (FCEVs), and cost breakdown of FCEVs alongside production rate.
Fig. 2: Performance of state-of-the-art catalysts evaluated in RDE and MEA.
Fig. 3: Comparison of RDE and MEA in catalyst assessment.
Fig. 4: Sources of mass transport resistance inside the MEA of a PEMFC.
Fig. 5: Mass transport improvement strategies.
Fig. 6: Mass transport enhancement at interfaces.
Fig. 7: Intermediate testing configurations.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. In the face of worsening climate crisis, UN Summit delivers new pathways and practical actions to shift global response into higher gear. United Nations https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2019/2009/in-the-face-of-worsening-climate-crisis-un-summit-delivers-new-pathways-and-practical-actions-to-shift-global-response-into-higher-gear/ (2019).

  2. Cano, Z. P. et al. Batteries and fuel cells for emerging electric vehicle markets. Nat. Energy 3, 279–289 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) market to reach USD 47.60 billion by 2026; increasing government guidelines will boost growth. Unique Finance https://go.nature.com/3vFnIoz (2019).

  4. Hydrogen Energy Ministerial Meeting 2019 (Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry of Japan, 2019); https://img.fuelcellsworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/summary_en.pdf

  5. Papageorgopoulos, D. Fuel Cell R&D Overview. 2019 Annual Merit Review and Peer Evaluation Meeting (Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department of Energy, 2019); https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review19/plenary_fuel_cell_papageorgopoulos_2019.pdf

  6. Shao, M., Chang, Q., Dodelet, J. P. & Chenitz, R. Recent advances in electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction reaction. Chem. Rev. 116, 3594–3657 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Banham, D., Choi, J. Y., Kishimoto, T. & Ye, S. Integrating PGM-free catalysts into catalyst layers and proton exchange membrane fuel cell devices. Adv. Mater. 31, 1804846 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Banham, D. et al. Critical advancements in achieving high power and stable nonprecious metal catalyst-based MEAs for real-word proton exchange membrane fuel cell applications. Sci. Adv. 4, 7180–7186 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. DOE technical targets for polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell components. US Department of Energy https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/doe-technical-targets-polymer-electrolyte-membrane-fuel-cell-components (2018).

  10. Kong, F. et al. Active and stable Pt–Ni alloy octahedra catalyst for oxygen reduction via near-surface atomical engineering. ACS Catal. 10, 4205–4214 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Lim, J. et al. Ga-doped Pt–Ni octahedral nanoparticles as a highly active and durable electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction reaction. Nano Lett. 18, 2450–2458 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Li, M. et al. Ultrafine jagged platinum nanowires enable ultrahigh mass activity for the oxygen reduction reaction. Science 354, 1414–1419 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Gao, L. et al. Unconventional p–d hybridization interaction in PtGa ultrathin nanowires boosts oxygen reduction electrocatalysis. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 141, 18083–18090 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Alia, S. M. et al. Exceptional oxygen reduction reaction activity and durability of platinum-nickel nanowires through synthesis and post-treatment optimization. ACS Omega 2, 1408–1418 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Bu, L. et al. Biaxially strained PtPb Pt core shell nanoplate boosts oxygen reduction catalysis. Science 354, 1410–1414 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Tian, X. et al. Engineering bunched Pt-Ni alloy nanocages for efficient oxygen reduction in practical fuel cells. Science 366, 850–856 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Zhang, L. et al. Platinum-based nanocages with subnanometer-thick walls and well-defined, controllable facets. Science 349, 412–416 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Wang, X. et al. Pt-based icosahedral nanocages: using a combination of {111} facets, twin defects, and ultrathin walls to greatly enhance their activity toward oxygen reduction. Nano Lett. 16, 1467–1471 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Chen, C. et al. Highly crystalline multimetallic nanoframes with three-dimensional electrocatalytic surfaces. Science 343, 1339–1343 (2014).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Luo, S., Tang, M., Shen, P. K. & Ye, S. Atomic-scale preparation of octopod nanoframes with high-index facets as highly active and stable catalysts. Adv. Mater. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201601687 (2017).

  21. Li, J. et al. Hard-magnet L10-CoPt nanoparticles advance fuel cell. Catal. Joule 3, 124–135 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Zhang, Y. W. et al. High performance Pt monolayer catalysts produced via core-catalyzed coating in ethanol. ACS Catal. 4, 738–742 (2014).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Stamenkovic, V. R. et al. Trends in electrocatalysis on extended and nanoscale Pt-bimetallic alloy surfaces. Nat. Mater. 6, 241–247 (2007).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Wu, J. & Yang, H. Platinum-based oxygen reduction electrocatalyst. Acc. Chem. Res. 46, 1848–1857 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Cui, C. et al. Octahedral PtNi nanoparticle catalysts: exceptional oxygen reduction activity by tuning the alloy particle surface composition. Nano Lett. 12, 5885–5889 (2012).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Choi, S. I. et al. Synthesis and characterization of 9 nm Pt-Ni octahedra with a record high activity of 3.3 A/mg(Pt) for the oxygen reduction reaction. Nano Lett. 13, 3420–3425 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Huang, X. et al. High-performance transition metal−doped Pt3Ni octahedra for oxygen reduction reaction. Science 348, 1230–1234 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Beermann, V. et al. Rh-doped Pt-Ni octahedral nanoparticles: understanding the correlation between elemental distribution, oxygen reduction reaction, and shape stability. Nano Lett. 16, 1719–1725 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Li, J. et al. Fe stabilization by intermetallic L10-FePt and Pt catalysis enhancement in L10-FePt/Pt nanoparticles for efficient oxygen reduction reaction in fuel cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 140, 2926–2932 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Wang, Q. et al. Sub-3 nm intermetallic ordered Pt3In clusters for oxygen reduction reaction. Adv. Sci. 7, 1901279–1901287 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Chong, L. et al. Ultralow-loading platinum-cobalt fuel cell catalysts derived from imidazolate frameworks. Science 362, 1276–1281 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Liang, J. et al. Biaxial strains mediated oxygen reduction electrocatalysis on fenton reaction resistant L10-PtZn fuel cell cathode. Adv. Energy Mater. 10, 2000179 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Inaba, M., Suzuki, T., Hantanaka, T. & Morimoto, Y. Fabrication and cell analysis of a Pt/SiO2 platinum thin film electrode. J. Electrochem. Soc. 162, F634–F638 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Gasteiger, H. A., Kocha, S. S., Sompalli, B. & Wagner, F. T. Activity benchmarks and requirements for Pt, Pt-alloy, and non-Pt oxygen reduction catalysts for PEMFCs. Appl. Catal. B 56, 9–35 (2005).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Schuler, T. et al. Fuel-cell catalyst-layer resistance via hydrogen limiting-current measurements. J. Electrochem. Soc. 166, F3020–F3031 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Kongkanand, A. & Mathias, M. F. The priority and challenge of high-power performance of low-platinum proton-exchange membrane fuel cells. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 7, 1127–1137 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Ohma, A. et al. Analysis of proton exchange membrane fuel cell catalyst layers for reduction of platinum loading at Nissan. Electrochim. Acta 56, 10832–10841 (2011).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Pan, L., Ott, S., Dionigi, F. & Strasser, P. Current challenges related to the deployment of shape-controlled Pt alloy oxygen reduction reaction nanocatalysts into low Pt-loaded cathode layers of proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Curr. Opin. Electrochem. 18, 61–71 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Shi, S., Weber, A. Z. & Kusoglu, A. Structure–transport relationship of perfluorosulfonic-acid membranes in different cationic forms. Electrochim. Acta 220, 517–528 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Kusoglu, A. & Weber, A. Z. New insights into perfluorinated sulfonic-acid ionomers. Chem. Rev. 117, 987–1104 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Mohamed, H. F. M. et al. Free volume and permeabilities of O2 and H2 in Nafion membranes for polymer electrolyte fuel cells. Polymer 49, 3091–3097 (2008).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Myers, D., Kariuki, N., Ahluwalia, R., Wang, X. & Peng, J. K. Rationally Designed Catalyst Layers for PEMFC Performance Optimization (US DOE, 2015); https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review15/fc106_myers_2015_o.pdf

  43. Banas, C. J., Uddin, M. A., Park, J., Bonville, L. J. & Pasaogullari, U. Thinning of cathode catalyst layer in polymer electrolyte fuel cells due to foreign cation contamination. J. Electrochem. Soc. 165, F3015 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Debe, M. K. Tutorial on the fundamental characteristics and practical properties of nanostructured thin film (NSTF) catalysts. J. Electrochem. Soc. 160, F522–F534 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Kongkanand, A. et al. Development of dispersed-catalyst/NSTF hybrid electrode. J. Electrochem. Soc. 159, F676–F682 (2012).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Kongkanand, A. et al. Degradation of PEMFC observed on NSTF electrodes. J. Electrochem. Soc. 161, F744–F753 (2014).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Kodama, K. et al. Effect of the side-chain structure of perfluoro-sulfonic acid ionomers on the oxygen reduction reaction on the surface of Pt. ACS Catal. 8, 694–700 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Kudo, K., Jinnouchi, R. & Morimoto, Y. Humidity and temperature dependences of oxygen transport resistance of nafion thin film on platinum electrode. Electrochim. Acta 209, 682–690 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Ono, Y., Ohma, A., Shinohara, K. & Fushinobu, K. Influence of equivalent weight of ionomer on local oxygen transport. J. Electrochem. Soc. 160, F779–F787 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Rolfi, A., Oldani, C., Merlo, L., Facchhi, D. & Ruffo, R. New perfluorinated ionomer with improved oxygen permeability for application in cathode polymeric electrolyte membrane fuel cell. J. Power Sources 396, 95–101 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Snyder, J., Livi, K. & Erlebacher, J. Oxygen reduction reaction performance of [MTBD][beti]-encapsulated nanoporous NiPt alloy nanoparticles. Adv. Funct. Mater. 23, 5494–5501 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Zhao, Z. et al. Tailoring a three-phase microenvironment for high-performance oxygen reduction reaction in proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Matter 3, 1774–1790 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Ott, S. et al. Ionomer distribution control in porous carbon-supported catalyst layers for high-power and low Pt-loaded proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Nat. Mater. 19, 77–85 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Yang, C. et al. Nitrogen and sulfur co-doped porous carbon sheets for energy storage and pH-universal oxygen reduction reaction. Nano Energy 54, 192–199 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Xia, W. et al. Highly ordered macroporous dual-element-doped carbon from metal–organic frameworks for catalyzing oxygen reduction. Chem. Sci. 11, 9584–9592 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Chokradjaroen, C. et al. A comparative study of undoped, boron-doped, and boron/fluorine dual-doped carbon nanoparticles obtained via solution plasma as catalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction. Sustain. Energy Fuels 4, 4570–4580 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Chaisubanan, N. et al. Insight into the alternative metal oxide modified carbon-supported PtCo for oxygen reduction reaction in proton exchange membrane fuel cell. Renew. Energy 139, 679–687 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Yu, X. et al. Coupling of iron phthalocyanine at carbon defect site via π–π stacking for enhanced oxygen reduction reaction. Appl. Catal. B 280, 119437 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Goswami, C., Hazarika, K. K. & Bharali, P. Transition metal oxide nanocatalysts for oxygen reduction reaction. Mater. Sci. Energy Technol. 1, 117–128 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  60. Orfanidi, A. et al. The key to high performance low Pt loaded electrodes. J. Electrochem. Soc. 164, F418–F426 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Doo, G. et al. Nano-scale control of the ionomer distribution by molecular masking of the Pt surface in PEMFCs. J. Mater. Chem. A 8, 13004–13013 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Wang, J. X., Springer, T. E. & Adzic, R. R. Dual-pathway kinetic equation for the hydrogen oxidation reaction on Pt electrodes. J. Electrochem. Soc. 153, A1732 (2006).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Gasteiger, H. A., Panels, J. E. & Yan, S. G. Dependence of PEM fuel cell performance on catalyst loading. J. Power Sources 127, 162–171 (2004).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Banham, D. & Ye, S. Current status and future development of catalyst materials and catalyst layers for proton exchange membrane fuel cells: an industrial perspective. ACS Energy Lett. 2, 629–638 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Ramaswamy, N. & Kumaraguru, S. Materials and design selection to improve high current density. ECS Trans. 2018, 835–842 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Park, Y., Tokiwa, H., Kakinuma, K., Watanabe, M. & Uchida, M. Effects of carbon supports on Pt distribution, ionomer coverage and cathode performance for polymer electrolyte fuel cells. J. Power Sources 315, 179–191 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Yarlagadda, V. et al. Boosting fuel cell performance with accessible carbon mesopores. ACS Energy Lett. 3, 618–621 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Banham, D. et al. Novel mesoporous carbon supports for PEMFC. Catalysts 5, 1046–1067 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Takeshita, T., Kamitaka, Y., Shinozaki, K., Kodama, K. & Morimoto, Y. Evaluation of ionomer coverage on Pt catalysts in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells by CO stripping voltammetry and its effect on oxygen reduction reaction activity. J. Electroanal. Chem. 871, 114250 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Welch, C. et al. Nafion in dilute solvent systems: dispersion or solution? ACS Macro Lett. 1, 1403–1407 (2012).

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  71. Xu, H. Ionomer Dispersion Impact on PEM Fuel Cell and Electrolyzer Performance and Durability 2019 DOE H2 and Fuel Cell Annual Merit Review Meeting (US DOE, 2019); https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review19/fc117_xu_2019_p.pdf

  72. Wang, M. et al. Impact of catalyst ink dispersing methodology on fuel cell performance using in-situ X-ray scattering. ACS Appl. Energ. Mater. 2, 6417–6427 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Li, Y. et al. Carbon corrosion behaviors and the mechanical properties of proton exchange membrane fuel cell cathode catalyst layer. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 45, 23519–23525 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Sassin, M. B., Garsany, Y., Atkinson, R. W., Hjelm, R. M. E. & Swider-Lyons, K. E. Understanding the interplay between cathode catalyst layer porosity and thickness on transport limitations en route to high-performance PEMFCs. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 44, 16944–16955 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Suzuki, A. et al. Ionomer content in the catalyst layer of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC): effects on diffusion and performance. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 36, 2221–2229 (2011).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Yoshino, S., Shinohara, A., Kodama, K. & Morimoto, Y. Fabrication of catalyst layer with ionomer nanofiber scaffolding for polymer electrolyte fuel cells. J. Power Sources 476, 228584 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  77. Slack, J. J. et al. Nanofiber fuel cell MEAs with a PtCo/C cathode. J. Electrochem. Soc. 166, F3202–F3209 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Rabat, H. & Brault, P. Plasma sputtering deposition of PEMFC porous carbon platinum electrodes. Fuel Cells 8, 81–86 (2008).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Ramaswamy, N. et al. Enhanced activity and interfacial durability study of ultra low Pt based electrocatalysts prepared by ion beam assisted deposition (IBAD) method. Electrochim. Acta 54, 6756–6766 (2009).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Shukla, S., Domican, K., Karan, K., Bhattacharjee, S. & Secanell, M. Analysis of low platinum loading thin polymer electrolyte fuel cell electrodes prepared by inkjet printing. Electrochim. Acta 156, 289–300 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Ercolano, G., Farina, F., Cavaliere, S., Jones, D. J. & Rozière, J. Towards ultrathin Pt films on nanofibres by surface-limited electrodeposition for electrocatalytic applications. J. Mater. Chem. A 5, 3974–3980 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  82. Kayarkatte, M. K., Delikaya, Ö. & Roth, C. Freestanding catalyst layers: a novel electrode fabrication technique for PEM fuel cells via electrospinning. ChemElectroChem 4, 404–411 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. Breitwieser, M., Klingele, M., Vierrath, S., Zengerle, R. & Thiele, S. Tailoring the membrane–electrode interface in PEM fuel cells: a review and perspective on novel engineering approaches. Adv. Energy Mater. 8, 1701257 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Koh, J. K., Jeon, Y., Cho, Y. I., Kim, J. H. & Shul, Y. A facile preparation method of surface patterned polymer electrolyte membranes for fuel cell applications. J. Mater. Chem. A 2, 8652–8659 (2014).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  85. Joseph, D. et al. Porous nafion membranes. J. Membr. Sci. 520, 723–730 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  86. Dang, Q. K. et al. Nafion membranes with a porous surface. J. Membr. Sci. 460, 199–205 (2014).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Klingele, M., Breitwieser, M., Zengerle, R. & Thiele, S. Direct deposition of proton exchange membranes enabling high performance hydrogen fuel cells. J. Mater. Chem. A 3, 11239–11245 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  88. Klingele, M. et al. A completely spray-coated membrane electrode assembly. Electrochem. Commun. 70, 65–68 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  89. Hizir, F. E., Ural, S. O., Kumbur, E. C. & Mench, M. M. Characterization of interfacial morphology in polymer electrolyte fuel cells: micro-porous layer and catalyst layer surfaces. J. Power Sources 195, 3463–3471 (2010).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  90. Aoyama, Y., Suzuki, K., Tabe, Y., Chikahisa, T. & Tanuma, T. Water transport and PEFC performance with different interface structure between micro-porous layer and catalyst layer. J. Electrochem. Soc. 163, F359–F366 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  91. Kalidindi, A. R., Taspinar, R., Litster, S. & Kumbur, E. C. A two-phase model for studying the role of microporous layer and catalyst layer interface on polymer electrolyte fuel cell performance. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 38, 9297–9309 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  92. Swamy, T., Kumbur, E. C. & Mench, M. M. Characterization of interfacial structure in PEFCs: water storage and contact resistance model. J. Electrochem. Soc. 157, B77–B85 (2010).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  93. Kucernak, A. R. & Toyoda, E. Studying the oxygen reduction and hydrogen oxidation reactions under realistic fuel cell conditions. Electrochem. Commun. 10, 1728–1731 (2008).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  94. Zalitis, C. M., Kramer, D. & Kucernak, A. R. Electrocatalytic performance of fuel cell reactions at low catalyst loading and high mass transport. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 15, 4329–4340 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  95. Martens, S. et al. A comparison of rotating disc electrode, floating electrode technique and membrane electrode assembly measurements for catalyst testing. J. Power Sources 392, 274–284 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  96. Pinaud, B. A., Bonakdarpour, A., Daniel, L., Sharman, J. & Wilkinson, D. P. Key considerations for high current fuel cell catalyst testing in an electrochemical half-cell. J. Electrochem. Soc. 164, F321–F327 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  97. Inaba, M. et al. Benchmarking high surface area electrocatalysts in a gas diffusion electrode: measurement of oxygen reduction activities under realistic conditions. Energy Environ. Sci. 11, 988–994 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2018YFB1502503, 2020YFB1505800), the Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Energy Materials for Electric Power (2018B030322001), the Foundation Research Project of Shenzhen the Natural Science Fund (JCYJ20200109141216566), the Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Hydrogen Energy (ZDSYS2016033110134898) and the Technology Projects for Sustainable Development (KCXFZ202002011010317).

Author information

Author notes

  1. These authors contributed equally: Ming Chen, Zhiliang Zhao, Zhen Zhang.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China

    Jiantao Fan, Zhiliang Zhao, Zhen Zhang, Shaoyi Xu & Hui Li

  2. Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China

    Jiantao Fan & Shaoyi Xu

  3. Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Energy Materials for Electric Power, Shenzhen, China

    Jiantao Fan, Ming Chen, Zhiliang Zhao, Zhen Zhang, Shaoyi Xu, Haijiang Wang & Hui Li

  4. Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China

    Ming Chen & Haijiang Wang

  5. Huangpu Hydrogen Energy Innovation Center, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China

    Siyu Ye

  6. SinoHykey Technology Guangzhou Co. Ltd, Guangzhou, China

    Siyu Ye

Authors
  1. Jiantao Fan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ming Chen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Zhiliang Zhao
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Zhen Zhang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Siyu Ye
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Shaoyi Xu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Haijiang Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Hui Li
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Hui Li.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

S.Y. is employed by SinoHykey Technology Guangzhou Co. Ltd, which manufactures MEAs/fuel cells. The other authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Peer review information Nature Energy thanks Di-Jia Liu, Alejandro Martinez-Bonastre and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Fan, J., Chen, M., Zhao, Z. et al. Bridging the gap between highly active oxygen reduction reaction catalysts and effective catalyst layers for proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Nat Energy 6, 475–486 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-021-00824-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-021-00824-7

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing