Abstract
Nowhere has the impact of scientific misinformation been more profound than on the issue of climate change in the United States. Effective responses to this multifaceted problem have been slow to develop, in large part because many experts have not only underestimated its impact, but have also overlooked the underlying institutional structure, organizational power and financial roots of misinformation. Fortunately, a growing body of sophisticated research has emerged that can help us to better understand these dynamics and provide the basis for developing a coordinated set of strategies across four related areas (public inoculation, legal strategies, political mechanisms and financial transparency) to thwart large-scale misinformation campaigns before they begin, or after they have taken root.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution
Relevant articles
Open Access articles citing this article.
-
Not Only WEIRD but “Uncanny”? A Systematic Review of Diversity in Human–Robot Interaction Research
International Journal of Social Robotics Open Access 08 March 2023
-
Growing polarization around climate change on social media
Nature Climate Change Open Access 24 November 2022
-
Attributions for extreme weather events: science and the people
Climatic Change Open Access 14 October 2022
Access options
Access Nature and 54 other Nature Portfolio journals
Get Nature+, our best-value online-access subscription
$29.99 / 30 days
cancel any time
Subscribe to this journal
Receive 12 print issues and online access
$209.00 per year
only $17.42 per issue
Rent or buy this article
Prices vary by article type
from$1.95
to$39.95
Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout
References
Weiss, R. Nip misinformation in the bud. Science 358, 427 (2017).
Betsch, C. Advocating for vaccination in a climate of science denial. Nat. Microbiol. 2, 17106 (2017).
Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., Seifert, C. M., Schwarz, N. & Cook, J. Misinformation and its correction: continued influence and successful debiasing. Psychol. Sci. Public Interest 13, 106–131 (2012).
Waldman, S. & Heikkinen, N. Smith pitched Pruitt on ‘secret science.’ Now it’s happening. E&E News (20 April 2018); https://www.eenews.net/stories/1060079655
A Proposed Rule by the Environmental Protection Agency: Strengthening Transparency in Regulatory Science (EPA, 2018); https://go.nature.com/2IOIz46
Milloy, S. J. Scare Pollution: Why and How to Fix the EPA (Bench Press, 2016).
Huelskamp, T. et al. Heartland Institute Applauds End of ‘Secret Science’ at EPA (Heartland Institute, 2018); https://go.nature.com/2P7mUTA
Bravender, R. Pruitt to unveil ‘secret science’ effort today – sources. E&E News (24 April 2018); https://www.eenews.net/stories/1060079891
Kormann, C. Scott Pruitt’s crusade against “secret science” could be disastrous for public health. The New Yorker (26 April 2018).
Smith, L. Honest and open new EPA science treatment act of 2017 (2017); https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/1430
Rep. Lamar Smith—Texas District 21 (OpenSecrets, accessed 12 October 2018); https://go.nature.com/2SfYIjY
O’Harrow Jr., R. A two-decade lobbying crusade by tax-exempt conservative charities fueled Trump’s exit from the Paris Climate Accord. The Washington Post (5 September 2017).
Brulle, R. J. Institutionalizing delay: foundation funding and the creation of US climate change counter-movement organizations. Climatic Change 122, 681–694 (2014).
Dunlap, R. E. & McCright, A. M. in The Oxford Handbook of Climate Change and Society Ch. 10 (Oxford Univ. Press, 2011).
Farrell, J. Corporate funding and ideological polarization about climate change. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 113, 92–97 (2016).
Farrell, J. Network structure and influence of the climate change counter-movement. Nat. Clim. Change 6, 370–374 (2016).
Supran, G. & Oreskes, N. Assessing ExxonMobil’s climate change communications (1977–2014). Environ. Res. Lett. 12, 084019 (2017).
Boussalis, C. & Coan, T. G. Text-mining the signals of climate change doubt. Glob. Environ. Change 36, 89–100 (2016).
Oreskes, N. & Conway, E. M. Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming (Bloomsbury Publishing, New York, 2010).
Cranor, C. F. The tobacco strategy entrenched. Science 321, 1296–1297 (2008).
Proctor, R. & Schiebinger, L. L. Agnotology: The Making and Unmaking of Ignorance (Stanford Univ. Press, Stanford, 2008).
McGarity, T. O. Freedom to Harm: The Lasting Legacy of the Laissez Faire Revival (Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, 2013).
Diethelm, P. & McKee, M. Denialism: what is it and how should scientists respond? Eur. J. Public Health 19, 2–4 (2009).
Björnberg, K. E., Karlsson, M., Gilek, M. & Hansson, S. O. Climate and environmental science denial: a review of the scientific literature published in 1990–2015. J. Clean. Prod. 167, 229–241 (2017).
Walker, E. T. Grassroots for Hire: Public Affairs Consultants in American Democracy (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 2014).
Aronczyk, M. Public relations, issue management, and the transformation of american environmentalism, 1948–1992. Enterp. Soc. 19, 836–863 (2018).
Boykoff, M. T. Who Speaks for the Climate?: Making Sense of Media Reporting on Climate Change (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 2011).
Del Vicario, M. et al. The spreading of misinformation online. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 113, 554–559 (2016).
Goldman, G. T. et al. Ensuring scientific integrity in the Age of Trump. Science 355, 696–698 (2017).
McCright, A. M., Charters, M., Dentzman, K. & Dietz, T. Examining the effectiveness of climate change frames in the face of a climate change denial counter-frame. Top. Cogn. Sci. 8, 76–97 (2016).
Kahan, D. M. Climate-science communication and the measurement problem. Polit. Psychol. 36, 1–43 (2015).
Cook, J. et al. Quantifying the consensus on anthropogenic global warming in the scientific literature. Environ. Res. Lett. 8, 024024 (2013).
Kahan, D. M., Jenkins-Smith, H. & Braman, D. Cultural cognition of scientific consensus. J. Risk Res. 14, 147–174 (2011).
Gauchat, G. & Andrews, K. T. The cultural-cognitive mapping of scientific professions. Am. Sociol. Rev. 83, 567–595 (2018).
Jasanoff, S. A new climate for society. Theory Cult. Soc. 27, 233–253 (2010).
Landrum, A. R., Hallman, W. K. & Jamieson, K. H. Examining the impact of expert voices: communicating the scientific consensus on genetically-modified organisms. Environ. Commun. https://doi.org/10.1080/17524032.2018.1502201 (2018).
Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H. & Cook, J. Beyond misinformation: understanding and coping with the “post-truth” era. J. Appl. Res. Mem. Cogn. 6, 353–369 (2017).
Pasek, J. It’s not my consensus: motivated reasoning and the sources of scientific illiteracy. Publ. Underst. Sci. 27, 787–806 (2018).
Gauchat, G., O’Brien, T. & Mirosa, O. The legitimacy of environmental scientists in the public sphere. Climatic Change 143, 297–306 (2017).
Brewer, P. R. & Ley, B. L. Whose science do you believe? Explaining trust in sources of scientific information about the environment. Sci. Commun. 35, 115–137 (2013).
Hamilton, L. C., Hartter, J., Lemcke-Stampone, M., Moore, D. W. & Safford, T. G. Tracking public beliefs about anthropogenic climate change. PLoS ONE 10, e0138208 (2015).
van der Linden, S., Leiserowitz, A., Rosenthal, S. & Maibach, E. Inoculating the public against misinformation about climate change. Glob. Chall. 1, 1600008 (2017).
Cook, J., Lewandowsky, S. & Ecker, U. K. H. Neutralizing misinformation through inoculation: exposing misleading argumentation techniques reduces their influence. PLoS ONE 12, e0175799 (2017).
Cook, J., Bedford, D. & Mandia, S. Raising climate literacy through addressing misinformation: case studies in agnotology-based learning. J. Geosci. Educ. 62, 296–306 (2014).
Douglas, P. & Hescox, M. Caring for Creation: The Evangelical’s Guide to Climate Change and a Healthy Environment (Bethany House Publishers, Bloomington, 2016).
Goldenberg, S. American Tradition Institute’s fight against ‘environmental junk science’. Guardian (9 May 2012); https://go.nature.com/2SjjuPx
Cann, H. W. & Raymond, L. Does climate denialism still matter? The prevalence of alternative frames in opposition to climate policy. Environ. Polit. 27, 433–454 (2018).
Climate Science Legal Defense Fund (accessed 13 October 2018); https://www.csldf.org/
Diani, M. & MacAdam, D. Social Movements and Networks: Relational Approaches to Collective Action (Oxford Univ. Press, New York, 2003).
DiMaggio, P. J. & Powell, W. W. in The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis (eds DiMaggio, P. J. & Powell, W. W.) 1–40 (Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago, 1991).
Scott, W. R. Institutions and Organizations (SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, 2001).
Jasny, L., Waggle, J. & Fisher, D. R. An empirical examination of echo chambers in US climate policy networks. Nat. Clim. Change 5, 782–786 (2015).
Parentau, E. Entergy completes internal investigation regarding New Orleans power station advocacy. Entergy Newsroom (10 May 2018); https://go.nature.com/2FJLWbW
Stein, M. I. Actors were paid to support Entergy’s power plant at New Orleans City Council meetings. The Lens (4 May 2018); https://go.nature.com/2Rrwenm
Magnan, A. Refeudalizing the public sphere: ‘manipulated publicity’ in the Canadian debate on GM foods. Can. J. Sociol. 31, 25–53 (2006).
Barley, S. R. Building an institutional field to corral a government: a case to set an agenda for organization Studies. Organ. Stud. 31, 777–805 (2010).
Schlichting, I. Consumer campaigns in corporate public affairs management: the case of climate change and the German energy industry. J. Commun. Manag. 18, 402–421 (2014).
Smith, K. T., Smith, L. M. & Dunbar, S. Using corporate advertising to improve public perception of energy companies. J. Strateg. Mark. 22, 347–356 (2014).
Vaughan, A. World Council of Churches rules out fossil fuel investments. Guardian (11 July 2014); https://go.nature.com/2P5Q59N
Divestment Commitments (Fossil Free, accessed 13 October 2018); https://gofossilfree.org/divestment/commitments/
Caldecott, B. Introduction to special issue: stranded assets and the environment. J. Sustain. Finan. Invest. 7, 1–13 (2017).
Mayor, Comptroller, Trustees Announce First-In-The-Nation Goal to Divest From Fossil Fuels (City of New York Press Office, 2018); https://go.nature.com/2PQIwnI
Frondel, M., Simora, M. & Sommer, S. Risk perception of climate change: empirical evidence for Germany. Ecol. Econ. 137, 173–183 (2017).
van der Linden, S. The social-psychological determinants of climate change risk perceptions: Towards a comprehensive model. J. Environ. Psychol. 41, 112–124 (2015).
Brulle, R. J. The climate lobby: a sectoral analysis of lobbying spending on climate change in the USA, 2000 to 2016. Climatic Change 149, 289–303 (2018).
Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission. 558 US 310 (2010); https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/558/310/
Mayer, J. Dark Money: The Hidden History of the Billionaires Behind the Rise of the Radical Right (Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, New York, 2016).
Lazer, D. M. J. et al. The science of fake news. Science 359, 1094–1096 (2018).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Farrell, J., McConnell, K. & Brulle, R. Evidence-based strategies to combat scientific misinformation. Nat. Clim. Chang. 9, 191–195 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0368-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0368-6
This article is cited by
-
Not Only WEIRD but “Uncanny”? A Systematic Review of Diversity in Human–Robot Interaction Research
International Journal of Social Robotics (2023)
-
Posts Supporting Anti-Environmental Policy in Brazil are Shared More on Social Media
Environmental Management (2023)
-
Detecting science-based health disinformation: a stylometric machine learning approach
Journal of Computational Social Science (2023)
-
Can Debunked Conspiracy Theories Change Radicalized Views? Evidence from Racial Prejudice and Anti-China Sentiment Amid the COVID-19 Pandemic
Journal of Chinese Political Science (2023)
-
Favourability towards natural gas relates to funding source of university energy centres
Nature Climate Change (2022)