Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is characterized by exceptionally high intratumoral heterogeneity. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the origin of different GBM cell populations remain unclear. Here, we found that the compositions of ribosomes of GBM cells in the tumour core and edge differ due to alternative RNA splicing. The acidic pH in the core switches before messenger RNA splicing of the ribosomal gene RPL22L1 towards the RPL22L1b isoform. This allows cells to survive acidosis, increases stemness and correlates with worse patient outcome. Mechanistically, RPL22L1b promotes RNA splicing by interacting with lncMALAT1 in the nucleus and inducing its degradation. Contrarily, in the tumour edge region, RPL22L1a interacts with ribosomes in the cytoplasm and upregulates the translation of multiple messenger RNAs including TP53. We found that the RPL22L1 isoform switch is regulated by SRSF4 and identified a compound that inhibits this process and decreases tumour growth. These findings demonstrate how distinct GBM cell populations arise during tumour growth. Targeting this mechanism may decrease GBM heterogeneity and facilitate therapy.
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Data availability
All of the proteomics data that were obtained during this study are presented in Supplementary Tables 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 and 9. The raw mass spectrometry data have been deposited in ProteomeXchange with the primary accession codes PXD035849, PXD035767 and PXD035855. All of the RNA-seq data that were obtained during this study are presented in Supplementary Tables 3, 6 and 8. The raw RNA-seq data of GBM neurospheres overexpressing different isoforms of RPL22L1 protein or an empty vector as a control have been deposited in the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database under accession code GSE180465. The RNA-IP sequencing data for RNA that interacts with Fc-tagged RPL22L1a, RPL22L1b or a control protein have been deposited in the GEO database under accession code GSE180464. Previously published RNA-seq data for GBM neurospheres and GBM tissue isolated from the different regions of the tumours that were re-analysed here are available from the GEO database under accession codes PRJNA344648 and GSE153746. iCLIP data for the SRSF4 protein that were re-analysed here are available from the Array Express database under accession code E-MTAB-747. Gene expression data from the Ivy Glioblastoma Atlas Project database (https://glioblastoma.alleninstitute.org/), gene expression and survival data from the Repository for Molecular Brain Neoplasia Data (GSE108474 and GSE68848) and gene expression, DNA methylation, survival and phenotype data from The Cancer Genome Atlas database (https://tcga-data.nci.nih.gov/tcga/) were used in this study. Source data are provided with this paper.
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Acknowledgements
We thank all of our respective laboratory colleagues for helpful discussion. We are grateful to M. A. Nakano and Y. D. Nakano for input on manuscript writing and editing. This work was supported by grants from the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation (for cell culture, 075-15-2020-773 to M.S.P. and M.I.S. and for LC-MS/MS analyses, 075-15-2019-1669 to V.O.S., G.P.A., K.S.A. and P.V.S.), Russian Science Foundation (for bioinformatics analyses, 22-15-00462 to V.O.S., K.S.A., G.P.A., P.V.S. and A.N.K., for ribosome fractionation, 21-64-00006 to O.A.D. and for cell culture work, 22-14-00234 to M.I.S.), Russian Foundation for Basic Research (19-34-90193 to K.S.A., 20-04-00804 to M.S.P. and 19-34-90102 to T.D.L.), Russian Federation (MD-4501.2021.1.4 to M.S.P.), Scholarship of the Russian Federation (SP-3815.2021.4 to V.O.S.), National Natural Science Foundation of China (81802502 to J.W.), National Cancer Institute (P50CA211015 and R01CA241927 to H.I.K., R01CA270027 and R21CA223757 to B.M.E. and R01CA201402 to I.N.), National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (R01NS121617 to H.I.K., R01NS107071 to I.N. and R01NS113631 to I.N.), Dr. Miriam and Sheldon G. Adelson Medical Research Foundation (to H.I.K.), Adelson Medical Research Foundation (to H.I.K.), American Cancer Society RSG-15-003-01-CCE (to B.M.E.) and Department of Defense (CA200290 to B.M.E.). We also thank the Center for Precision Genome Editing and Genetic Technologies for Biomedicine of Federal Research and Clinical Center of Physical-Chemical Medicine for RNA-seq. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish or preparation of the manuscript.
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M.S.P., M.I.S., H.I.K. and I.N. designed the experiments. M.S.P., T.D.L., T.E.A., S.B., V.O.S., J.W., D.E.A., G.P.A., C.L., V.V.T., P.V.S., Y.W., M.P.R., M.C. and T.F.K. performed the experiments. M.S.P., K.S.A., A.N.K. and G.P.A. analysed the data. Y.A.L., B.M.E. and I.N. collected the clinical samples. A.A.S., F.G. and P.M. established the FG1059 inhibitor. M.S.P., A.A.S., H.I.K., O.A.D. and I.N. wrote the manuscript.
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Extended data
Extended Data Fig. 1 Proteomic and transcriptomic intratumoral heterogeneity of glioblastoma.
a, The principal component analysis of LC-MS/MS (left panel) and RNAseq (right panels) data obtained from GBM sphere lines derived from core (n = 4 different clones) and edge (n = 3 different clones) of the 1051 tumor. b, Correlation analysis of protein‐to‐RNA abundance in GBM sphere lines as in ‘a’. c, Correlation of protein composition of ribosomes with mRNA levels of the corresponding ribosomal genes. d, Correlation of protein composition of ribosomes with the differences in pre-mRNA splicing of the corresponding ribosomal genes. Proteins that are differentially included into ribosomes of GBM sphere lines with edge and core phenotype were determined by SILAC LC-MS/MS. Differences in mRNA levels and in pre-mRNA splicing were determined by RNA sequencing of the corresponding cells. Correlation coefficient, trend line and the most differentially present proteins/mRNAs are indicated. e, RT-PCR analysis RPL22L1 splicing in GBM cells from n = 3 different patients. PCR products were separated using PAAG electrophoresis. f, Sashimi plots demonstrating differences in splicing of RPL22L1 between GBM sphere lines with edge (157, 011, 025) and core (083, 028, 006) phenotype (cells isolated from n = 6 different patients). g, RT-PCR analysis of RPL22L1 splicing in different human cell lines. h, The principal component analysis of RNAseq data obtained from GBM sphere lines used in this study. Red – previously characterized GBM spheres with core phenotype, blue - previously characterized GBM spheres with edge phenotype, gray – sphere lines established in this study (n = 14 different patients). i, RT-PCR analysis of RPL22L1 isoform abundance in 267 cells cultivated for 5 days in normal (pH 7.4) or acidified (pH 6.0) medium. NMD inhibitor (NMDI-14) was added to a final concentration of 5 μM 24 hours before cells were collected for RNA purification.
Extended Data Fig. 2 Expression of RPL22L1 isoforms in human cancers.
a, Relative expression of RPL22L1 isoforms and SETD4 (previously described NMD target36) in Hela cells depleted for different NMD factors (experiment was performed in n = 3 biological replicates; data are mean ± SD). Raw RNAseq data were obtained from GSE152437. b, Riboseq and RNAseq read densities for RPL22L1 in U251 GBM cells (data were obtained from GSE141013 dataset). c, Polysome profile of 083 GBM spheres (upper panel) and RT-PCR analysis of RPL22L1 splicing (lower panel). d, Mass spectrometry identification of the peptide related to RPL22L1b isoform (data were obtained from PXD004023 dataset). e, Western blotting analysis of GBM spheres with edge (157, 025) and core (022, 083) phenotypes with different antibodies against RPL22L1.
Extended Data Fig. 3
Representative immunofluorescent staining of GBM cells predominantly expressing RPL22L1a (001, 157, 025) or RPL22L1b (006, 022, 083) isoform with antibodies against N-terminal part of RPL22L1. The red dotted line indicates areas of DAPI staining (borders of the nucleus).
Extended Data Fig. 4 Prognostic value of RPL22L1 isoforms.
a, Kaplan-Meier curve showing the overall survival of Kidney Renal Clear Cell Carcinoma (n = 532 different patients), Adrenocortical carcinoma (n = 79 different patients) and Uveal Melanoma (n = 80 different patients) patients subdivided based on the splicing of RPL22L1 (log-rank test). RNAseq data were obtained from TCGA database. b, Splicing of RPL22L1 in GBM patients with wild type and mutated IDH1 (left panel); in patients younger and older than 50 years (middle panel) and in patients with high and low level of MGMT promoter methylation (right panel). 14 different probes were used to assess methylation status, none of them showed statistically significant differences in RPL22L1 splicing. Date were obtained from TCGA database (n = 154 different patients; the line in the box is the median, the up and low of the box are the first and third quartiles, and the whiskers extend to 10th and 90th percentiles respectively). Higher psi values indicate higher percentage of RPL22L1b isoform. c, FACS analysis of cell cycle distribution of 267 cells stained with propidium iodide. Populations that were collected by cell sorting are indicated. d, qRT-PCR analysis of Ki67 expression in cell populations collected as in ‘c’. e, RT-PCR analysis of RPL22L1 splicing in cell populations collected as in ‘c’ (experiment was performed in n = 3 biological replicates). All quantitative data are mean ± SD, n.s. – non significant.
Extended Data Fig. 5 RPL22L1b facilitates GBM growth in low pH conditions.
a, RT-PCR analysis of RPL22L1 splicing in 001, 011 and 022 GBM spheres that were cultivated for 5 days in normal (pH 7.4) or acidified (pH 6.0) medium. b, Immunofluorescent staining of different areas of GBM tumor tissues from patient 1051 for RPL22L1 (green) and DNA (blue). Yellow and red arrows indicate cells with nuclear and cytoplasmic localization of RPL22L1 respectively. c, Colocalization analysis of RPL22L1 and DAPI staining for the same tumor areas as in ‘b’. Pearson’s R value is indicated. d, Representative immunofluorescent staining of 022 GBM cells overexpressing RPL22L1a, RPL22L1b or an empty vector with antibodies against N-terminal part of RPL22L1. e, FACS analysis of caspase 3/7 activity and SYTOX staining of 157 glioma spheres that were transduced with lentiviruses encoding RPL22L1a, RPL22L1b or an empty vector (control) and cultivated in normal (pH 7.4) or acidified medium (pH 6.4) for 8 days.
Extended Data Fig. 6 Differential splicing of RPL22L1 promotes GBM intratumoral heterogeneity.
a, Forward vs. side scatter plot of 020 GBM spheres overexpressing RPL22L1a or RPL22L1b. Cell size was determined using Countess II Automated Cell Counter (experiment was performed in n = 4 biological replicates). b, Representative confocal images of 157 glioma spheres that were first transduced with lentiviruses encoding RPL22L1a or RPL22L1b and subsequently transduced with lentiviruses encoding GFP or RFP. Next cells overexpressing RPL22L1a + RFP were mixed with cells overexpressing RPL22L1b + GFP and imaged 4 days later. c, Representative images of wound healing assay with 157 cells stably expressing RPL22L1a, RPL22L1b or an empty vector. d, Representative IHC staining for CD109 of mouse brain sections obtained 3 months after intracranial injection of 3·105 luciferase labeled 1051 glioma spheres overexpressing RPL22L1a or RPL22L1b (n = 2 mice per group). e, PAAG electrophoresis of recombinant RPL22L1a (a), or RPL22L1b (b), that were purified from E. coli. f, Enrichment analysis of proteins that were bound to recombinant His-tagged RPL22L1a (upper panel) or RPL22L1b (lower panel) and subsequently identified by LC-MS/MS.
Extended Data Fig. 7 Molecular functions RPL22L1 isoforms in GBM cells.
a, Enrichment analysis of proteins that were co-purified with Fc-tagged RPL22L1a (lower panel) or RPL22L1b (upper panel) and subsequently identified by LC-MS/MS. b, Enrichment analysis of mRNAs that were co-purified with Fc-tagged RPL22L1a (left panel) or RPL22L1b (right panel) and subsequently identified by RNA sequencing. c, KEGG database GSVA analysis of RNA sequencing data obtained from 157 cells overexpressing RPL22L1a, RPL22L1b or an empty vector (experiment was performed in two biological replicates). d, Enrichment analysis of proteins that were differentially present in 157 cells overexpressing RPL22L1a or RPL22L1b isoform as determined by SILAC LC-MS/MS. e, Enrichment analysis of alternative splicing events related to exon skipping (upper panel) or mutually exclusive exon inclusion (lover panel) detected in 157 cells stably expressing RPL22L1b compared to the control cells.
Extended Data Fig. 8 RPL22L1 isoforms regulate pre-mRNA splicing and mRNA translation in GBM cells.
a, Sashimi plots demonstrating differences in splicing of MDM4 between 157 GBM spheres overexpressing RPL22L1a, RPL22L1b or an empty vector. Number of reeds that confirms exon skipping or exon inclusion is indicated. b, qRT-PCR analysis of MALAT1 RNA stability in 1079, 022 and 011 GBM spheres overexpressing RPL22L1a or RPL22L1b isoforms. Cells were cultivated for 6 hours with Actinomycin D at final concentration of 10 μg/ml (experiment was performed in n = 3 biological replicates). c, Kaplan-Meier curve showing the disease-free survival of glioma patients subdivided based on the MALAT1 expression level (n = 338 different patients, log-rank test). Data were obtained from TCGA database. d, Representative fluorescence images demonstrating L-homopropargylglycine (HPG) incorporation into newly synthesized proteins in 157, 022 and 267 GBM sphere lines. HPG was detected by Alexa Fluor488 azide (green). Nucleus were visualized by DAPI (blue). Cells pretreated for 30 min with cycloheximide (100 µg/ml) were used as a control. e, Polysome profiles of 1079 GBM spheres stably expressing RPL22L1a or RPL22L1b (experiment was performed in n = 2 biological replicates). f, RNA-IP enrichment profiles of RPL22L1a, RPL22L1b and a control protein for TP53 gene. 157 cells overexpressing Fc-tagged proteins were used for the experiment. g, Correlation of ALDH3A2 and ALDH1A3 expression levels in glioma. Data were obtained from REMBRANDT (n = 354 different patients; left panel) or TCGA (n = 671 different patients; right panel) databases. All quantitative data are mean ± SD.
Extended Data Fig. 9 SRSF4 regulates RPL22L1 splicing.
a, SRSF4 CLIP-tag enrichment profile in Rpl22l1 RNA sequence. Data were obtained from E-MTAB-747 dataset. b, qRT-PCR analysis of RNAs that were co-purified with Fc-tagged SRSF4 (red), or a control protein (blue) with primers for RPL22L1 exon 3, RPL22L1 3’UTR or RPL22 (experiment was performed in n = 3 biological replicates). c, SRSF4 expression level in different regions of GBM tumor (n = 122 RNA samples obtained from n = 10 different patients, one-way ANOVA test, following Dunnett’s/Tukey’s posttest). Data were obtained from IVY GAP database. The line in the box is the median, the up and low of the box are the first and third quartiles, and the whiskers extend to 10th and 90th percentiles respectively. d, qRT-PCR analysis of SRSF4 expression in 006, 030 and 157 GBM cells transduced with lentiviruses encoding non-target shRNA (shNT) or two different shRNAs against SRSF4 (48shSRSF4 and 49shSRSF4). e, Quantification of RPL22L1 splicing differences in 030 (upper) and 157 (lower) GBM cells transduced with lentiviruses as in ‘d’ (experiment was performed in n = 3 biological replicates). Higher psi values indicate higher percentage of RPL22L1b isoform. f, Kaplan-Meier curve showing the overall survival of glioblastoma patients (n = 179) subdivided based on the SRSF4 expression level (log-rank test). Data were obtained from REMBRANDT database. g, RT-PCR analysis of RPL22L1 splicing in 011 and 1079 glioma spheres that were left untreated (Un) or treated for 24 hours with CMP3a (10 μM), EY404 (10 μM), Fg1059 (10 μM), Cisplatin (10 μM), TMZ (100 μM) or Pladienolide B (1 μM). h, Enrichment analysis of the proteins that were differentially phosphorylated (more than 10 fold differences) in 157 GBM cells after 3 and 12 hours of incubation with 3 μM of FG1059 as opposed to untreated cells (experiment was performed in n = 2 biological replicates). Reactom and InterPro databases were used to calculate enrichment. All quantitative data are mean ± SD.
Extended Data Fig. 10 FG1059 induce apoptosis of GBM cells.
a, In vitro cell viability assay of 022, 157 and 1079 GBM spheres stably expressing RPL22L1a, RPL22L1b or an empty vector. Cells were treated with different concentrations of FG1059 for 5 days (experiment was performed in n = 6 biological replicates; data are mean ± SD). b, FACS analysis of caspase 3/7 activity and SYTOX staining of 157 cells treated with DMSO; 0.2 μM of FG1059; 20 μM of TMZ or with both compounds simultaneously for 24 hours. c, FACS analysis of caspase 3/7 activity and SYTOX staining of 157 cells treated with DMSO; 50 nM of FG1059; 50 nM of Pladienolide B or with both compounds simultaneously for 24 hours. d, Kaplan-Meier curve showing the overall survival of glioma (n = 509 different patients; left panel) and glioblastoma (n = 152 different patients; right panel) patients subdivided based on the RPL22 expression level (log-rank test). Data were obtained from TCGA database. e, Flow cytometry gating used for apoptosis assay (left panel) and for CD133 or HPG staining (right panel).
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Larionova, T.D., Bastola, S., Aksinina, T.E. et al. Alternative RNA splicing modulates ribosomal composition and determines the spatial phenotype of glioblastoma cells. Nat Cell Biol 24, 1541–1557 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41556-022-00994-w
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41556-022-00994-w
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