Abstract
Ageing is associated with the functional decline of all tissues and a striking increase in many diseases. Although ageing has long been considered a one-way street, strategies to delay and potentially even reverse the ageing process have recently been developed. Here, we review four emerging rejuvenation strategies—systemic factors, metabolic manipulations, senescent cell ablation and cellular reprogramming—and discuss their mechanisms of action, cellular targets, potential trade-offs and application to human ageing.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution
Access options
Access Nature and 54 other Nature Portfolio journals
Get Nature+, our best-value online-access subscription
$29.99 / 30 days
cancel any time
Subscribe to this journal
Receive 12 print issues and online access
$209.00 per year
only $17.42 per issue
Buy this article
- Purchase on Springer Link
- Instant access to full article PDF
Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Lopez-Otin, C., Blasco, M. A., Partridge, L., Serrano, M. & Kroemer, G. The hallmarks of aging. Cell 153, 1194–1217 (2013).
Kennedy, B. K. et al. Geroscience: linking aging to chronic disease. Cell 159, 709–713 (2014).
Kenyon, C. J. The genetics of ageing. Nature 464, 504–512 (2010).
Gems, D. & Partridge, L. Genetics of longevity in model organisms: debates and paradigm shifts. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 75, 621–644 (2013).
Brandhorst, S. et al. A periodic diet that mimics fasting promotes multi-system regeneration, enhanced cognitive performance, and healthspan. Cell Metab. 22, 86–99 (2015).
Cheng, C. W. et al. Fasting-mimicking diet promotes Ngn3-driven β-cell regeneration to reverse diabetes. Cell 168, 775–788.e12 (2017).
Cerletti, M., Jang, Y. C., Finley, L. W., Haigis, M. C. & Wagers, A. J. Short-term calorie restriction enhances skeletal muscle stem cell function. Cell Stem Cell 10, 515–519 (2012).
Newman, J. C. et al. Ketogenic diet reduces midlife mortality and improves memory in aging mice. Cell Metab. 26, 547–557 (2017).
Roberts, M. N. et al. A ketogenic diet extends longevity and healthspan in adult mice. Cell Metab. 26, 539–546 (2017).
Harrison, D. E. et al. Rapamycin fed late in life extends lifespan in genetically heterogeneous mice. Nature 460, 392–395 (2009).
Longo, V. D. et al. Interventions to slow aging in humans: are we ready? Aging Cell 14, 497–510 (2015).
de Cabo, R., Carmona-Gutierrez, D., Bernier, M., Hall, M. N. & Madeo, F. The search for antiaging interventions: from elixirs to fasting regimens. Cell 157, 1515–1526 (2014).
Conboy, M. J., Conboy, I. M. & Rando, T. A. Heterochronic parabiosis: historical perspective and methodological considerations for studies of aging and longevity. Aging Cell 12, 525–530 (2013).
de Keizer, P. L. The fountain of youth by targeting senescent cells? Trends Mol. Med. 23, 6–17 (2017).
Mahmoudi, S. & Brunet, A. Aging and reprogramming: a two-way street. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 24, 744–756 (2012).
Brack, A. S. et al. Increased Wnt signaling during aging alters muscle stem cell fate and increases fibrosis. Science 317, 807–810 (2007).
Conboy, I. M. et al. Rejuvenation of aged progenitor cells by exposure to a young systemic environment. Nature 433, 760–764 (2005).
Loffredo, F. S. et al. Growth differentiation factor 11 is a circulating factor that reverses age-related cardiac hypertrophy. Cell 153, 828–839 (2013).
Baht, G. S. et al. Exposure to a youthful circulation rejuvenates bone repair through modulation of β-catenin. Nat. Commun. 6, 7131 (2015).
Sinha, M. et al. Restoring systemic GDF11 levels reverses age-related dysfunction in mouse skeletal muscle. Science 344, 649–652 (2014).
Villeda, S. A. et al. The ageing systemic milieu negatively regulates neurogenesis and cognitive function. Nature 477, 90–94 (2011).
Katsimpardi, L. et al. Vascular and neurogenic rejuvenation of the aging mouse brain by young systemic factors. Science 344, 630–634 (2014).
Smith, L. K. et al. β2-Microglobulin is a systemic pro-aging factor that impairs cognitive function and neurogenesis. Nat. Med. 21, 932–937 (2015).
Ruckh, J. M. et al. Rejuvenation of regeneration in the aging central nervous system. Cell Stem Cell 10, 96–103 (2012).
Villeda, S. A. et al. Young blood reverses age-related impairments in cognitive function and synaptic plasticity in mice. Nat. Med. 20, 659–663 (2014).
Castellano, J. M. et al. Human umbilical cord plasma proteins revitalize hippocampal function in aged mice. Nature 544, 488–492 (2017).
Rebo, J. et al. A single heterochronic blood exchange reveals rapid inhibition of multiple tissues by old blood. Nat. Commun. 7, 13363 (2016).
Conboy, I. M. & Rando, T. A. The regulation of Notch signaling controls satellite cell activation and cell fate determination in postnatal myogenesis. Dev. Cell 3, 397–409 (2002).
Brack, A. S., Conboy, I. M., Conboy, M. J., Shen, J. & Rando, T. A. A temporal switch from notch to Wnt signaling in muscle stem cells is necessary for normal adult myogenesis. Cell Stem Cell 2, 50–59 (2008).
Yousef, H. et al. Systemic attenuation of the TGF-β pathway by a single drug simultaneously rejuvenates hippocampal neurogenesis and myogenesis in the same old mammal. Oncotarget 6, 11959–11978 (2015).
Baruch, K. et al. Aging-induced type I interferon response at the choroid plexus negatively affects brain function. Science 346, 89–93 (2014).
Poggioli, T. et al. Circulating growth differentiation factor 11/8 levels decline with age. Circ. Res. 118, 29–37 (2016).
Smith, S. C. et al. GDF11 does not rescue aging-related pathological hypertrophy. Circ. Res. 117, 926–932 (2015).
Egerman, M. A. et al. GDF11 increases with age and inhibits skeletal muscle regeneration. Cell Metab. 22, 164–174 (2015).
Jones, J. E. et al. Supraphysiologic administration of GDF11 induces cachexia in part by upregulating GDF15. Cell Rep. 22, 1522–1530 (2018).
Elabd, C. et al. Oxytocin is an age-specific circulating hormone that is necessary for muscle maintenance and regeneration. Nat. Commun. 5, 4082 (2014).
Lee, H. J., Macbeth, A. H., Pagani, J. H. & Young, W. S. 3rd Oxytocin: the great facilitator of life. Prog. Neurobiol. 88, 127–151 (2009).
Freitas-Rodriguez, S., Rodriguez, F. & Folgueras, A. R. GDF11 administration does not extend lifespan in a mouse model of premature aging. Oncotarget 7, 55951–55956 (2016).
Shytikov, D., Balva, O., Debonneuil, E., Glukhovskiy, P. & Pishel, I. Aged mice repeatedly injected with plasma from young mice: a survival study. Biores. Open Access 3, 226–232 (2014).
Kapahi, P., Kaeberlein, M. & Hansen, M. Dietary restriction and lifespan: lessons from invertebrate models. Ageing Res. Rev. 39, 3–14 (2017).
Martin-Montalvo, A. et al. Metformin improves healthspan and lifespan in mice. Nat. Commun. 4, 2192 (2013).
Bonkowski, M. S. & Sinclair, D. A. Slowing ageing by design: the rise of NAD+ and sirtuin-activating compounds. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 17, 679–690 (2016).
Rippe, C. et al. Short-term calorie restriction reverses vascular endothelial dysfunction in old mice by increasing nitric oxide and reducing oxidative stress. Aging Cell 9, 304–312 (2010).
Meidenbauer, J. J., Ta, N. & Seyfried, T. N. Influence of a ketogenic diet, fish-oil, and calorie restriction on plasma metabolites and lipids in C57BL/6J mice. Nutr. Metab. 11, 23 (2014).
Johnson, S. C., Rabinovitch, P. S. & Kaeberlein, M. mTOR is a key modulator of ageing and age-related disease. Nature 493, 338–345 (2013).
Zoncu, R., Efeyan, A. & Sabatini, D. M. mTOR: from growth signal integration to cancer, diabetes and ageing. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 12, 21–35 (2011).
Imai, S. & Guarente, L. NAD+ and sirtuins in aging and disease. Trends Cell Biol. 24, 464–471 (2014).
Chen, C., Liu, Y., Liu, Y. & Zheng, P. mTOR regulation and therapeutic rejuvenation of aging hematopoietic stem cells. Sci. Signal. 2, ra75 (2009).
Neff, F. et al. Rapamycin extends murine lifespan but has limited effects on aging. J. Clin. Invest. 123, 3272–3291 (2013).
Newman, J. C. & Verdin, E. β-Hydroxybutyrate: a signaling metabolite. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 37, 51–76 (2017).
Edwards, C. et al. d-β-hydroxybutyrate extends lifespan in C. elegans. Aging 6, 621–644 (2014).
Gocmez, S. S. et al. Protective effects of resveratrol on aging-induced cognitive impairment in rats. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 131, 131–136 (2016).
Kim, E. N. et al. Resveratrol, an Nrf2 activator, ameliorates aging-related progressive renal injury. Aging 10, 83–99 (2018).
Pearson, K. J. et al. Resveratrol delays age-related deterioration and mimics transcriptional aspects of dietary restriction without extending life span. Cell Metab. 8, 157–168 (2008).
Hernandez-Segura, A., Nehme, J. & Demaria, M. Hallmarks of cellular senescence. Trends Cell Biol. 28, 436–453 (2018).
Campisi, J. Aging, cellular senescence, and cancer. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 75, 685–705 (2013).
Munoz-Espin, D. et al. Programmed cell senescence during mammalian embryonic development. Cell 155, 1104–1118 (2013).
Storer, M. et al. Senescence is a developmental mechanism that contributes to embryonic growth and patterning. Cell 155, 1119–1130 (2013).
Demaria, M. et al. An essential role for senescent cells in optimal wound healing through secretion of PDGF-AA. Dev. Cell 31, 722–733 (2014).
Krizhanovsky, V. et al. Senescence of activated stellate cells limits liver fibrosis. Cell 134, 657–667 (2008).
Baar, M. P. et al. Targeted apoptosis of senescent cells restores tissue homeostasis in response to chemotoxicity and aging. Cell 169, 132–147 (2017).
Baker, D. J. et al. Naturally occurring p16Ink4a-positive cells shorten healthy lifespan. Nature 530, 184–189 (2016).
Baker, D. J. et al. Clearance of p16Ink4a-positive senescent cells delays ageing-associated disorders. Nature 479, 232–236 (2011).
Ogrodnik, M. et al. Cellular senescence drives age-dependent hepatic steatosis. Nat. Commun. 8, 15691 (2017).
Chang, J. et al. Clearance of senescent cells by ABT263 rejuvenates aged hematopoietic stem cells in mice. Nat. Med. 22, 78–83 (2016).
Fuhrmann-Stroissnigg, H. et al. Identification of HSP90 inhibitors as a novel class of senolytics. Nat. Commun. 8, 422 (2017).
Jeon, O. H. et al. Local clearance of senescent cells attenuates the development of post-traumatic osteoarthritis and creates a pro-regenerative environment. Nat. Med. 23, 775–781 (2017).
Zhu, Y. et al. The Achilles’ heel of senescent cells: from transcriptome to senolytic drugs. Aging Cell 14, 644–658 (2015).
Farr, J. N. et al. Targeting cellular senescence prevents age-related bone loss in mice. Nat. Med. 23, 1072–1079 (2017).
Xu, M. et al. Senolytics improve physical function and increase lifespan in old age. Nat. Med. 24, 1246–1256 (2018).
Sharpless, N. E. & Sherr, C. J. Forging a signature of in vivo senescence. Nat. Rev. Cancer 15, 397–408 (2015).
Wiley, C. D. et al. Analysis of individual cells identifies cell-to-cell variability following induction of cellular senescence. Aging Cell 16, 1043–1050 (2017).
Hernandez-Segura, A. et al. Unmasking transcriptional heterogeneity in senescent cells. Curr. Biol. 27, 2652–2660.e4 (2017).
Hall, B. M. et al. p16Ink4a and senescence-associated β-galactosidase can be induced in macrophages as part of a reversible response to physiological stimuli. Aging 9, 1867–1884 (2017).
Jeyapalan, J. C., Ferreira, M., Sedivy, J. M. & Herbig, U. Accumulation of senescent cells in mitotic tissue of aging primates. Mech. Ageing Dev. 128, 36–44 (2007).
Liu, Y. et al. Expression of p16INK4a in peripheral blood T-cells is a biomarker of human aging. Aging Cell 8, 439–448 (2009).
Burd, C. E. et al. Monitoring tumorigenesis and senescence in vivo with a p16INK4a-luciferase model. Cell 152, 340–351 (2013).
McShea, A., Harris, P. L., Webster, K. R., Wahl, A. F. & Smith, M. A. Abnormal expression of the cell cycle regulators p16 and CDK4 in Alzheimer’s disease. Am. J. Pathol. 150, 1933–1939 (1997).
Childs, B. G. et al. Senescent intimal foam cells are deleterious at all stages of atherosclerosis. Science 354, 472–477 (2016).
Linehan, E. & Fitzgerald, D. C. Ageing and the immune system: focus on macrophages. Eur. J. Microbiol. Immunol. 5, 14–24 (2015).
Villanueva, M. T. Ageing: old bone removal. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 16, 456 (2017).
Roos, C. M. et al. Chronic senolytic treatment alleviates established vasomotor dysfunction in aged or atherosclerotic mice. Aging Cell 15, 973–977 (2016).
Schoenwaelder, S. M. et al. Bcl-xL-inhibitory BH3 mimetics can induce a transient thrombocytopathy that undermines the hemostatic function of platelets. Blood 118, 1663–1674 (2011).
Wilson, W. H. et al. Navitoclax, a targeted high-affinity inhibitor of BCL-2, in lymphoid malignancies: a phase 1 dose-escalation study of safety, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and antitumour activity. Lancet Oncol. 11, 1149–1159 (2010).
Zhu, Y. et al. Identification of a novel senolytic agent, navitoclax, targeting the Bcl-2 family of anti-apoptotic factors. Aging Cell 15, 428–435 (2016).
Talpaz, M. et al. Dasatinib in imatinib-resistant Philadelphia chromosome-positive leukemias. N. Engl. J. Med. 354, 2531–2541 (2006).
Nelson, G. et al. A senescent cell bystander effect: senescence-induced senescence. Aging Cell 11, 345–349 (2012).
Xu, M. et al. Targeting senescent cells enhances adipogenesis and metabolic function in old age. eLife 4, e12997 (2015).
Sousa-Victor, P. et al. Geriatric muscle stem cells switch reversible quiescence into senescence. Nature 506, 316–321 (2014).
Xu, M. et al. JAK inhibition alleviates the cellular senescence-associated secretory phenotype and frailty in old age. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 112, E6301–E6310 (2015).
Schafer, M. J. et al. Cellular senescence mediates fibrotic pulmonary disease. Nat. Commun. 8, 14532 (2017).
Takahashi, K. & Yamanaka, S. Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic and adult fibroblast cultures by defined factors. Cell 126, 663–676 (2006).
Israel, M. A. et al. Probing sporadic and familial Alzheimer’s disease using induced pluripotent stem cells. Nature 482, 216–220 (2012).
Liu, G. H. et al. Recapitulation of premature ageing with iPSCs from Hutchinson–Gilford progeria syndrome. Nature 472, 221–225 (2011).
Miller, J. D. et al. Human iPSC-based modeling of late-onset disease via progerin-induced aging. Cell Stem Cell 13, 691–705 (2013).
Rando, T. A. & Chang, H. Y. Aging, rejuvenation, and epigenetic reprogramming: resetting the aging clock. Cell 148, 46–57 (2012).
Lapasset, L. et al. Rejuvenating senescent and centenarian human cells by reprogramming through the pluripotent state. Genes Dev. 25, 2248–2253 (2011).
Suhr, S. T. et al. Mitochondrial rejuvenation after induced pluripotency. PLoS ONE 5, e14095 (2010).
Mertens, J. et al. Directly reprogrammed human neurons retain aging-associated transcriptomic signatures and reveal age-related nucleocytoplasmic defects. Cell Stem Cell 17, 705–718 (2015).
Lo Sardo, V. et al. Influence of donor age on induced pluripotent stem cells. Nat. Biotechnol. 35, 69–74 (2017).
Ohnishi, K. et al. Premature termination of reprogramming in vivo leads to cancer development through altered epigenetic regulation. Cell 156, 663–677 (2014).
Mosteiro, L. et al. Tissue damage and senescence provide critical signals for cellular reprogramming in vivo. Science 354, aaf4445 (2016).
Abad, M. et al. Reprogramming in vivo produces teratomas and iPS cells with totipotency features. Nature 502, 340–345 (2013).
Mosteiro, L., Pantoja, C., de Martino, A. & Serrano, M. Senescence promotes in vivo reprogramming through p16INK4a and IL-6. Aging Cell 17, e12711 (2018).
Ocampo, A. et al. In vivo amelioration of age-associated hallmarks by partial reprogramming. Cell 167, 1719–1733.e12 (2016).
Falick Michaeli, T. et al. The rejuvenating effect of pregnancy on muscle regeneration. Aging Cell 14, 698–700 (2015).
Polo, J. M. et al. A molecular roadmap of reprogramming somatic cells into iPS cells. Cell 151, 1617–1632 (2012).
Papp, B. & Plath, K. Epigenetics of reprogramming to induced pluripotency. Cell 152, 1324–1343 (2013).
Wang, R. et al. Rapamycin inhibits the secretory phenotype of senescent cells by a Nrf2-independent mechanism. Aging Cell 16, 564–574 (2017).
Iglesias-Bartolome, R. et al. mTOR inhibition prevents epithelial stem cell senescence and protects from radiation-induced mucositis. Cell Stem Cell 11, 401–414 (2012).
Demidenko, Z. N. et al. Rapamycin decelerates cellular senescence. Cell Cycle 8, 1888–1895 (2009).
Soria-Valles, C. et al. NF-κB activation impairs somatic cell reprogramming in ageing. Nat. Cell Biol. 17, 1004–1013 (2015).
Brady, J. J. et al. Early role for IL-6 signalling during generation of induced pluripotent stem cells revealed by heterokaryon RNA-seq. Nat. Cell Biol. 15, 1244–1252 (2013).
Lee, J. et al. Activation of innate immunity is required for efficient nuclear reprogramming. Cell 151, 547–558 (2012).
Chiche, A. et al. Injury-induced senescence enables in vivo reprogramming in skeletal muscle. Cell Stem Cell 20, 407–414.e4 (2017).
Franceschi, C. et al. Inflamm-aging. An evolutionary perspective on immunosenescence. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 908, 244–254 (2000).
Youm, Y. H. et al. Canonical Nlrp3 inflammasome links systemic low-grade inflammation to functional decline in aging. Cell Metab. 18, 519–532 (2013).
Strong, R. et al. Nordihydroguaiaretic acid and aspirin increase lifespan of genetically heterogeneous male mice. Aging Cell 7, 641–650 (2008).
Hundal, R. S. et al. Mechanism by which high-dose aspirin improves glucose metabolism in type 2 diabetes. J. Clin. Invest. 109, 1321–1326 (2002).
Gasparini, L., Ongini, E. & Wenk, G. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in Alzheimer’s disease: old and new mechanisms of action. J. Neurochem. 91, 521–536 (2004).
Wan, Q. L., Zheng, S. Q., Wu, G. S. & Luo, H. R. Aspirin extends the lifespan of Caenorhabditis elegans via AMPK and DAF-16/FOXO in dietary restriction pathway. Exp. Gerontol. 48, 499–506 (2013).
Zhang, G. et al. Hypothalamic programming of systemic ageing involving IKK-β, NF-κB and GnRH. Nature 497, 211–216 (2013).
Liu, M. et al. Resveratrol inhibits mTOR signaling by promoting the interaction between mTOR and DEPTOR. J. Biol. Chem. 285, 36387–36394 (2010).
Conboy, I. M., Conboy, M. J. & Rebo, J. Systemic problems: a perspective on stem cell aging and rejuvenation. Aging 7, 754–765 (2015).
Tran, D. et al. Insulin-like growth factor-1 regulates the SIRT1–p53 pathway in cellular senescence. Aging Cell 13, 669–678 (2014).
Laberge, R. M. et al. MTOR regulates the pro-tumorigenic senescence-associated secretory phenotype by promoting IL1A translation. Nat. Cell Biol. 17, 1049–1061 (2015).
Herranz, N. et al. mTOR regulates MAPKAPK2 translation to control the senescence-associated secretory phenotype. Nat. Cell Biol. 17, 1205–1217 (2015).
Han, X. et al. AMPK activation protects cells from oxidative stress-induced senescence via autophagic flux restoration and intracellular NAD+ elevation. Aging Cell 15, 416–427 (2016).
Wu, Y. et al. Autophagy and mTORC1 regulate the stochastic phase of somatic cell reprogramming. Nat. Cell Biol. 17, 715–725 (2015).
Chen, T. et al. Rapamycin and other longevity-promoting compounds enhance the generation of mouse induced pluripotent stem cells. Aging Cell 10, 908–911 (2011).
Benayoun, B. A., Pollina, E. A. & Brunet, A. Epigenetic regulation of ageing: linking environmental inputs to genomic stability. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 16, 593–610 (2015).
Horvath, S. DNA methylation age of human tissues and cell types. Genome Biol. 14, R115 (2013).
Hannum, G. et al. Genome-wide methylation profiles reveal quantitative views of human aging rates. Mol. Cell 49, 359–367 (2013).
Narita, M. et al. Rb-mediated heterochromatin formation and silencing of E2F target genes during cellular senescence. Cell 113, 703–716 (2003).
Chandra, T. et al. Independence of repressive histone marks and chromatin compaction during senescent heterochromatic layer formation. Mol. Cell 47, 203–214 (2012).
Foran, E. et al. Upregulation of DNA methyltransferase-mediated gene silencing, anchorage-independent growth, and migration of colon cancer cells by interleukin-6. Mol. Cancer Res. 8, 471–481 (2010).
Hodge, D. R. et al. Interleukin-6 regulation of the human DNA methyltransferase (HDNMT) gene in human erythroleukemia cells. J. Biol. Chem. 276, 39508–39511 (2001).
Kim, C. H. et al. Short-term calorie restriction ameliorates genomewide, age-related alterations in DNA methylation. Aging Cell 15, 1074–1081 (2016).
Hahn, O. et al. Dietary restriction protects from age-associated DNA methylation and induces epigenetic reprogramming of lipid metabolism. Genome Biol. 18, 56 (2017).
Rubinsztein, D. C., Marino, G. & Kroemer, G. Autophagy and aging. Cell 146, 682–695 (2011).
Barzilai, N., Crandall, J. P., Kritchevsky, S. B. & Espeland, M. A. Metformin as a tool to target aging. Cell Metab. 23, 1060–1065 (2016).
Kang, C. et al. The DNA damage response induces inflammation and senescence by inhibiting autophagy of GATA4. Science 349, aaa5612 (2015).
Gewirtz, D. A. Autophagy and senescence: a partnership in search of definition. Autophagy 9, 808–812 (2013).
Ho, T. T. et al. Autophagy maintains the metabolism and function of young and old stem cells. Nature 543, 205–210 (2017).
Garcia-Prat, L. et al. Autophagy maintains stemness by preventing senescence. Nature 529, 37–42 (2016).
Leeman, D. S. et al. Lysosome activation clears aggregates and enhances quiescent neural stem cell activation during aging. Science 359, 1277–1283 (2018).
Prigione, A. et al. Mitochondrial-associated cell death mechanisms are reset to an embryonic-like state in aged donor-derived iPS cells harboring chromosomal aberrations. PLoS ONE 6, e27352 (2011).
Passos, J. F. et al. Feedback between p21 and reactive oxygen production is necessary for cell senescence. Mol. Syst. Biol. 6, 347 (2010).
Passos, J. F. et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction accounts for the stochastic heterogeneity in telomere-dependent senescence. PLoS Biol. 5, e110 (2007).
Wiley, C. D. et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction induces senescence with a distinct secretory phenotype. Cell Metab. 23, 303–314 (2016).
Lakowski, B. & Hekimi, S. Determination of life-span in Caenorhabditis elegans by four clock genes. Science 272, 1010–1013 (1996).
Liu, X. et al. Evolutionary conservation of the clk-1-dependent mechanism of longevity: loss of mclk1 increases cellular fitness and lifespan in mice. Genes Dev. 19, 2424–2434 (2005).
Dillin, A. et al. Rates of behavior and aging specified by mitochondrial function during development. Science 298, 2398–2401 (2002).
Owusu-Ansah, E., Song, W. & Perrimon, N. Muscle mitohormesis promotes longevity via systemic repression of insulin signaling. Cell 155, 699–712 (2013).
Copeland, J. M. et al. Extension of Drosophila life span by RNAi of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. Curr. Biol. 19, 1591–1598 (2009).
Fatt, M. et al. Metformin acts on two different molecular pathways to enhance adult neural precursor proliferation/self-renewal and differentiation. Stem Cell Rep. 5, 988–995 (2015).
Beerman, I., Seita, J., Inlay, M. A., Weissman, I. L. & Rossi, D. J. Quiescent hematopoietic stem cells accumulate DNA damage during aging that is repaired upon entry into cell cycle. Cell Stem Cell 15, 37–50 (2014).
Poulos, M. G. et al. Endothelial transplantation rejuvenates aged hematopoietic stem cell function. J. Clin. Invest. 127, 4163–4178 (2017).
Sepulveda, J. C. et al. Cell senescence abrogates the therapeutic potential of human mesenchymal stem cells in the lethal endotoxemia model. Stem Cells 32, 1865–1877 (2014).
Fontana, L. et al. The effects of graded caloric restriction: XII. Comparison of mouse to human impact on cellular senescence in the colon. Aging Cell 17, e12746 (2018).
Banito, A. et al. Senescence impairs successful reprogramming to pluripotent stem cells. Genes Dev. 23, 2134–2139 (2009).
Li, H. et al. The Ink4/Arf locus is a barrier for iPS cell reprogramming. Nature 460, 1136–1139 (2009).
Ritschka, B. et al. The senescence-associated secretory phenotype induces cellular plasticity and tissue regeneration. Genes Dev. 31, 172–183 (2017).
Ingram, D. K. & de Cabo, R. Calorie restriction in rodents: caveats to consider. Ageing Res. Rev. 39, 15–28 (2017).
Mannick, J. B. et al. mTOR inhibition improves immune function in the elderly. Sci. Transl Med. 6, 268ra179 (2014).
Mak, S. S., Moriyama, M., Nishioka, E., Osawa, M. & Nishikawa, S. Indispensable role of Bcl2 in the development of the melanocyte stem cell. Dev. Biol. 291, 144–153 (2006).
McDonnell, T. J. et al. bcl-2-Immunoglobulin transgenic mice demonstrate extended B cell survival and follicular lymphoproliferation. Cell 57, 79–88 (1989).
Zhang, H. et al. Bcl-2 family proteins are essential for platelet survival. Cell Death Differ. 14, 943–951 (2007).
Bernardes de Jesus, B. et al. Telomerase gene therapy in adult and old mice delays aging and increases longevity without increasing cancer. EMBO Mol. Med. 4, 691–704 (2012).
Matheu, A. et al. Anti-aging activity of the Ink4/Arf locus. Aging Cell 8, 152–161 (2009).
Gonzalez-Navarro, H. et al. Increased dosage of Ink4/Arf protects against glucose intolerance and insulin resistance associated with aging. Aging Cell 12, 102–111 (2013).
Carrasco-Garcia, E., Arrizabalaga, O., Serrano, M., Lovell-Badge, R. & Matheu, A. Increased gene dosage of Ink4/Arf and p53 delays age-associated central nervous system functional decline. Aging Cell 14, 710–714 (2015).
van Praag, H., Shubert, T., Zhao, C. & Gage, F. H. Exercise enhances learning and hippocampal neurogenesis in aged mice. J. Neurosci. 25, 8680–8685 (2005).
Luo, L. et al. Chronic resistance training activates autophagy and reduces apoptosis of muscle cells by modulating IGF-1 and its receptors, Akt/mTOR and Akt/FOXO3a signaling in aged rats. Exp. Gerontol. 48, 427–436 (2013).
Valdez, G. et al. Attenuation of age-related changes in mouse neuromuscular synapses by caloric restriction and exercise. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107, 14863–14868 (2010).
Valenzano, D. R., Terzibasi, E., Cattaneo, A., Domenici, L. & Cellerino, A. Temperature affects longevity and age-related locomotor and cognitive decay in the short-lived fish Nothobranchius furzeri. Aging Cell 5, 275–278 (2006).
Zhang, B. et al. Environmental temperature differentially modulates C. elegans longevity through a thermosensitive TRP channel. Cell Rep. 11, 1414–1424 (2015).
Lee, S. J. & Kenyon, C. Regulation of the longevity response to temperature by thermosensory neurons in Caenorhabditis elegans. Curr. Biol. 19, 715–722 (2009).
Conti, B. et al. Transgenic mice with a reduced core body temperature have an increased life span. Science 314, 825–828 (2006).
Smith, P. et al. Regulation of life span by the gut microbiota in the short-lived African turquoise killifish. eLife 6, e27014 (2017).
Zhang, Y. et al. Hypothalamic stem cells control ageing speed partly through exosomal miRNAs. Nature 548, 52–57 (2017).
Wei, M. et al. Fasting-mimicking diet and markers/risk factors for aging, diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular disease. Sci. Transl Med. 9, eaai8700 (2017).
Singh, M. et al. Effect of low-dose rapamycin on senescence markers and physical functioning in older adults with coronary artery disease: results of a pilot study. J. Frailty Aging 5, 204–207 (2016).
Gandini, S. et al. Metformin and cancer risk and mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis taking into account biases and confounders. Cancer Prev. Res. 7, 867–885 (2014).
Holman, R. R., Paul, S. K., Bethel, M. A., Matthews, D. R. & Neil, H. A. 10-year follow-up of intensive glucose control in type 2 diabetes. N. Engl. J. Med. 359, 1577–1589 (2008).
Yosef, R. et al. Directed elimination of senescent cells by inhibition of BCL-W and BCL-XL. Nat. Commun. 7, 11190 (2016).
Abbott, A. Infusions of young blood tested in patients with dementia. Nature News (1 November 2017).
Mahmoudi, S. & Brunet, A. Bursts of reprogramming: a path to extend lifespan? Cell 167, 1672–1674 (2016).
Acknowledgements
We apologize to those colleagues whose work we could not cite owing to space limitations. We thank C. Kenyon, P. Singh, J. Vos, M. Quarta and A. Colville for helpful feedback on the manuscript. This work was supported by the Stanford Graduate Fellowship (L.X.) and a generous philanthropic gift from M. Barakett and T. Barakett.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary information
Supplementary Table 1
Extended summary of studies testing rejuvenation interventions at midlife and later in wild type mice.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mahmoudi, S., Xu, L. & Brunet, A. Turning back time with emerging rejuvenation strategies. Nat Cell Biol 21, 32–43 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41556-018-0206-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41556-018-0206-0
This article is cited by
-
Restoration of neuronal progenitors by partial reprogramming in the aged neurogenic niche
Nature Aging (2024)
-
Identification of the ageing‐related prognostic gene signature, and the associated regulation axis in skin cutaneous melanoma
Scientific Reports (2023)
-
Predicting transcriptional outcomes of novel multigene perturbations with GEARS
Nature Biotechnology (2023)
-
Spurious transcription may be a hallmark of aging
Nature Aging (2023)
-
Ageing and rejuvenation of tissue stem cells and their niches
Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology (2023)
