Abstract
Despite their critical roles in Venus’s geological evolution, neither heat flow through the Venusian lithosphere nor the corresponding tectonic regime in its geological past is well constrained. However, because impact basin formation is sensitive to thermal conditions at depth, studying large basin development can provide crucial insights into the past geological conditions of a planet. Here we model the formation of Mead Basin, the largest impact structure on Venus, and its two ring faults at approximately 190 km and 270 km diameter, to determine the thermal conditions in Venus’s crust and upper mantle at the time of impact. For present-day surface temperatures, we find that lithospheric thermal gradients no higher than 14 K km−1, corresponding to surface heat fluxes of 28 mW m−2, are required to reproduce the morphology of Mead Basin. These values are less than half of what is expected for an active lid planet, implying that Venus may have had a stagnant lid when Mead Basin formed, between 0.3 and 1 billion years ago.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution
Access options
Access Nature and 54 other Nature Portfolio journals
Get Nature+, our best-value online-access subscription
$29.99 / 30 days
cancel any time
Subscribe to this journal
Receive 12 digital issues and online access to articles
$119.00 per year
only $9.92 per issue
Rent or buy this article
Prices vary by article type
from$1.95
to$39.95
Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Model input files and outputs are uploaded to the Harvard Dataverse and are available at https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/HGVPRR.
Code availability
iSALE is not currently available to the public and is accessible to the impact community on a case-by-case basis for non-commercial use. Scientists interested in using or developing iSALE can reference https://isale-code.github.io/ for a description and application requirements.
References
McKinnon, W. B., Zhanle, K. J., Ivanov, B. A. & Melosh, H. J. in Venus II (eds Bougher, S. W. & Hunten, D. M.) 969–1014 (Univ. Arizona Press, 1997).
Phillips, R. J. et al. Impact craters and Venus resurfacing history. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 97, 15923–15948 (1992).
Strom, R. G., Schaber, G. G. & Dawson, D. D. The global resurfacing of Venus. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 99, 10899–10926 (1994).
Bjonnes, E. E., Hansen, V. L., James, B. & Swenson, J. B. Equilibrium resurfacing of Venus: results from new Monte Carlo modeling and implications for Venus surface histories. Icarus 217, 451–461 (2012).
Schaber, G. G. et al. Geology and distribution of impact craters on Venus: what are they telling us? J. Geophys. Res. Planets 97, 13257–13301 (1992).
Tackley, P. J. Mantle convection and plate tectonics: toward an integrated physical and chemical theory. Icarus 288, 2002–2007 (2000).
Kattenhorn, S. A. & Prockter, L. M. Evidence for subduction in the ice shell of Europa. Nat. Geosci. 7, 762–767 (2014).
Davaille, A., Smrekar, S. E. & Tomlinson, S. Experimental and observational evidence for plume-induced subduction on Venus. Nat. Geosci. 10, 349–355 (2017).
Sandwell, D. & Schubert, G. Evidence for retrograde lithospheric subduction on Venus. Icarus 257, 766–770 (1992).
Kaula, W. M. & Phillips, R. J. Quantitative tests for plate tectonics on Venus. Geophys. Res. Lett. 8, 1187–1190 (1981).
Solomon, S. C. et al. Venus tectonics: an overview of Magellan observations. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 97, 13199–13255 (1992).
Ivanov, B. A., Melosh, H. J. & Pierazzo, E. Basin-forming impacts: reconnaissance modeling. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap. 465, 29–49 (2010).
Miljković, K. et al. Asymmetric distribution of lunar impact basins caused by variations in target properties. Science 342, 724–726 (2013).
Potter, R. W. K., Collins, G. S., Kiefer, W. S., McGovern, P. J. & Kring, D. A. Constraining the size of the South Pole–Aitken basin impact. Icarus 220, 730–743 (2012).
Johnson, B. C. et al. Controls on the formation of lunar multiring basins. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 8, 387–16 (2018).
Johnson, B. C. et al. Formation of the Orientale lunar multiring basin. Science 354, 441–444 (2016).
Alexopoulos, J. S. & McKinnon, W. B. Large impact craters and basins on Venus, with implications for ring mechanics on the terrestrial planets. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap. 293, 29–50 (1994).
Herrick, R. R. & Sharpton, V. L. Geologic history of the Mead impact basin, Venus. Geology 24, 11–14 (1996).
Melosh, H. J. Impact Cratering: A Geologic Process (Oxford Univ. Press, 1989).
McKinnon, W. B. in Multiring Basins (eds Merill, R. B. & Schultz, P. H.) 259–273 (Pergamon Press, 1981).
Melosh, H. J. & McKinnon, W. B. The mechanics of ringed basin formation. Geophys. Res. Lett. 5, 985–988 (1978).
McKinnon, W. B. & Melosh, H. J. Evolution of planetary lithospheres: evidence from multiringed structures on Ganymede and Callisto. Icarus 44, 454–471 (1980).
Collins, G. S., Melosh, H. J. & Ivanov, B. A. Modeling damage and deformation in impact simulations. Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 39, 217–231 (2004).
Ivanov, B. A., Deniem, D. & Neukum, G. Implementation of dynamic strength models into 2D hydrocodes: applications for atmospheric breakup and impact cratering. Int. J. Impact Eng. 20, 411–430 (1997).
Melosh, H. J., Ryan, E. V. & Asphaug, E. Dynamic fragmentation in impacts: hydrocode simulation of laboratory impacts. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 97, 14735–14759 (1992).
Wünnemann, K., Collins, G. S. & Melosh, H. J. A strain-based porosity model for use in hydrocode simulations of impacts and implications for transient crater growth in porous targets. Icarus 180, 514–527 (2006).
Minton, D. A. & Malhotra, R. Dynamical erosion of the asteroid belt and implications for large impacts in the inner Solar System. Icarus 207, 744–757 (2010).
Davies, J. H. & Davies, D. R. Earth’s surface heat flux. Solid Earth 1, 5–24 (2010).
Way, M. J. & Genio, A. D. D. Venusian habitable climate scenarios: modeling Venus through time and applications to slowly rotating Venus-like exoplanets. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 125, e2019JE006276 (2020).
James, P. B., Zuber, M. T. & Phillips, R. J. Crustal thickness and support of topography on Venus. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 118, 859–875 (2013).
Jiménez-Díaz, A. et al. Lithospheric structure of Venus from gravity and topography. Icarus 260, 215–231 (2015).
Karimi, S. & Dombard, A. J. Studying lower crustal flow beneath Mead Basin: implications for the thermal history and rheology of Venus. Icarus 282, 34–39 (2017).
Ruiz, J., Jiménez-Díaz, A., Egea-González, I., Parro, L. M. & Mansilla, F. Icarus 322, 221–226 (2019).
Freed, A. M. et al. The formation of lunar mascon basins from impact to contemporary form. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 119, 2378–2397 (2014).
Beardsmore, G. R. & Cull, J. P. Crustal Heat Flow: A Guide to Measurement and Modeling (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001).
Nimmo, F. & McKenzie, D. Modelling plume-related uplift, gravity and melting on Venus. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 145, 109–123 (1996).
Nimmo, F. & McKenzie, D. Volcanism and tectonics on Venus. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 26, 23–51 (1998).
Solomatov, V. S. & Moresi, L.-N. Stagnant lid convection on Venus. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 101, 4737–4753 (1996).
Turcotte, D. L. A heat pipe mechanism for volcanism and tectonics on Venus. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 94, 2779–2785 (1989).
Anderson, F. S. & Smrekar, S. E. Global mapping of crustal and lithospheric thickness on Venus. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 111, E08006 (2006)..
Benz, W., Cameron, A. G. W. & Melosh, H. J. The origin of the Moon and the single-impact hypothesis III. Icarus 81, 113–131 (1989).
Pierazzo, E., Vickery, A. M. & Melosh, H. J. A reevaluation of impact melt production. Icarus 127, 408–423 (1997).
Turcotte, D. & Schubert, G. Geodynamics (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2014).
Davison, T. M., Collins, G. S. & Ciesla, F. J. Numerical modelling of heating in porous planetesimal collisions. Icarus 208, 468–481 (2010).
Collins, G. S. Numerical simulations of impact crater formation with dilatancy. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 119, 2600–2619 (2014).
Johnson, G. R. & Cook, W. H. A constitutive model and data for metals subjected to large strains, high strain rates and high temperatures. In Proc. 7th International Symposium on Ballistics 541–547 (American Defense Preparedness Association, 1983).
Melosh, H. J. Acoustic fluidization: a new geologic process? J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 84, 7513–7520 (1979).
Acknowledgements
We thank the developers of iSALE and pySALEplot, including G. Collins, K. Wünnemann, D. Elbeshausen, T. Davison, B. Ivanov and J. Melosh.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
E.B. and B.C.J. conceptualized the project. E.B. ran the computer models with oversight of B.C.J. All authors contributed to the preparation of the manuscript and the conclusions presented therein.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Peer review information Nature Astronomy thanks Walter Kiefer and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Extended data
Extended Data Fig. 1 Magellan SAR image of Mead Basin.
Radar-bright regions highlight faults surrounding the crater, with the main bright faults being the circumferential ring faults. Note the terrace zone comprised of extensive small-scale faults in between the main ring faults. Image courtesy of NASA JPL, Magellan Mission, Image PIA00148.
Extended Data Fig. 2 Thermal profile and strength profiles for combinations of crustal thicknesses and thermal gradients for models with 723 K surface temperature and 30 km crust.
a, Thermal profile. b, Strength profile. The different crustal thicknesses are highlighted by the dashed lines in b. The thermal profiles are the same regardless of the crustal thickness used, but the strength profiles show a discontinuity associated with the compositional difference.
Extended Data Fig. 3 Thermal profile and strength profiles for combinations of crustal thicknesses and thermal gradients for models with 350 K surface temperature and 30 km crust.
a, Thermal profile. b, Strength profile. The different crustal thicknesses are highlighted by the dashed lines in b. The thermal profiles are the same regardless of the crustal thickness used, but the strength profiles show a discontinuity associated with the compositional difference.
Extended Data Fig. 4 Influence of surface temperature and thermal gradient on ring fault spacing.
a–f, Inner and outer ring fault locations are shown for models with surface temperatures of 723 K (red) and 350 K (blue) for combinations of projectile sizes and crustal thicknesses. Ring locations are binned according to the thermal gradient tested (shown along the x-axis). Projectile size and crustal thickness are noted in the upper left corner of each panel. Data for each surface temperature are offset for clarity. Inner ring fault locations, defined as the innermost fault intersecting the basin floor or along the basin wall, are marked by circles; outer ring fault locations, defined as the outermost fault that intersects the surface at or beyond the basin rim, are marked by squares. A line spans the range of fault diameters for simulations with both inner and outer rings. Distances shown have an uncertainty of approximately ±5 km.
Extended Data Fig. 5 Effect of thermal gradient on basin ring location and spacing for basins formed with a 24-km-diameter projectile, 723 K surface temperature and 30 km crust.
a–f, A series of 3× vertically exaggerated plots highlighting ring fault locations and the associated displacement. Vertical grey bars mark the current surface locations of Mead Basin’s ring faults17 and are intended to guide the eye. All plots are taken 500 s after impact. Tracer lines are coloured according to composition, with black lines representing a basalt crust and blue lines representing a dunite mantle. Tracers lines are initially horizontal and spaced 1 km apart.
Extended Data Fig. 6 Effect of thermal gradient on basin ring location and spacing for basins formed with a 30-km-diameter projectile, 723 K surface temperature and 30 km crust.
a–f, A series of 3× vertically exaggerated plots highlighting ring fault locations and the associated displacement. Vertical grey bars mark the current surface locations of Mead Basin’s ring faults17 and are intended to guide the eye. All plots are taken 500 s after impact. Tracer lines are coloured according to composition, with black lines representing a basalt crust and blue lines representing a dunite mantle. Tracers lines are initially horizontal and spaced 1 km apart.
Extended Data Fig. 7 Effect of crustal thickness on material strength.
Material strength is plotted for two thermal gradients (6 K km−1 and 14 K km−1), showing how the depth of transition from a basaltic crust to a dunite mantle affects the target strength. Surface temperature is 723 K for each case.
Extended Data Fig. 8 Effect of thermal gradient on basin ring location and spacing for basins formed with a 36-km-diameter projectile striking a 20-km-thick basaltic crust on a target with 723 K surface temperature.
a–f, A series of 3× vertically exaggerated plot highlighting ring fault locations and the associated displacement. Vertical grey bars mark the current surface locations of Mead Basin’s ring faults17 and are intended to guide the eye. All plots are taken 500 s after impact. Tracer lines are coloured according to composition, with black lines representing a basalt crust and blue lines representing a dunite mantle. Tracers lines are initially horizontal and spaced 1 km apart.
Extended Data Fig. 9 Effect of thermal gradient on basin ring location and spacing for basins formed with a 36-km-diameter projectile, 350 K surface temperature and 30 km crust.
a–f, A series of 3× vertically exaggerated plot highlighting ring fault locations and the associated displacement. Vertical grey bars mark the current surface locations of Mead Basin’s ring faults17 and are intended to guide the eye. All plots are taken 500 s after impact. Tracer lines are coloured according to composition, with black lines representing a basalt crust and blue lines representing a dunite mantle. Tracers lines are initially horizontal and spaced 1 km apart.
Supplementary information
Supplementary Information
Supplementary Tables 1 and 2.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bjonnes, E., Johnson, B.C. & Evans, A.J. Estimating Venusian thermal conditions using multiring basin morphology. Nat Astron 5, 498–502 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-020-01289-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-020-01289-6
This article is cited by
-
Earth-like lithospheric thickness and heat flow on Venus consistent with active rifting
Nature Geoscience (2023)
-
Venus’s atmospheric nitrogen explained by ancient plate tectonics
Nature Astronomy (2023)
-
Dynamics and Evolution of Venus’ Mantle Through Time
Space Science Reviews (2022)