Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Article
  • Published:

Brown rice compared to white rice slows gastric emptying in humans

European Journal of Clinical Nutrition volume 72, pages 367–373 (2018)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

Background/objectives

Consumption of whole vs. refined grain foods is recommended by nutrition or dietary guideline authorities of many countries, yet specific aspects of whole grains leading to health benefits are not well understood. Gastric emptying rate is an important consideration, as it is tied to nutrient delivery rate and influences glycemic response. Our objective was to explore two aspects of cooked rice related to gastric emptying, (1) whole grain brown vs. white rice and (2) potential effect of elevated levels of slowly digestible starch (SDS) and resistant starch (RS) from high-amylose rice.

Subjects/methods

Ten healthy adult participants were recruited for a crossover design study involving acute feeding and testing of 6 rice samples (50 g available carbohydrate). Gastric emptying rate was measured using a 13C-labeled octanoic acid breath test. A rice variety (Cocodrie) with high-amylose content was temperature-cycled to increase SDS and RS fractions.

Results

In vitro starch digestibility results showed incremental increase in RS in Cocodrie after two temperature cycles. For low-amylose varieties, SDS was higher in the brown rice form. In human subjects, low-amylose and high-amylose brown rice delayed gastric emptying compared to white rices regardless of amylose content or temperature-cycling (p < 0.05).

Conclusions

Whole grain brown rice had slower gastric emptying rate, which appears to be related to the physical presence of the bran layer. Extended gastric emptying of brown rice explains in part comparably low glycemic response observed for brown rice.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee, US Department of Agriculture. Scientific report of the 2015, Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee; 2015.

  2. Kristensen M, Toubro S, Jensen MG, Ross AB, Riboldi G, Petronio M, et al. Whole grain compared with refined wheat decreases the percentage of body fat following a 12-week, energy-restricted dietary intervention in postmenopausal women. J Nutr. 2012;142:710–6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Ye EQ, Chacko SA, Chou EL, Kugizaki M, Liu S. Greater whole-grain intake is associated with lower risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and weight gain. J Nutr. 2012;142:1304–13.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Tighe P, Duthie G, Vaughan N, Brittenden J, Simpson WG, Duthie S, et al. Effect of increased consumption of whole-grain foods on blood pressure and other cardiovascular risk markers in healthy middle-aged persons: A randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;72:733–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Lattimer J, Haub M. Effects of dietary fiber and its components on metabolic health. Nutrients. 2010;2:1266–89.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Hallfrisch J, Behall KM. Mechanisms of the effects of grains on insulin and glucose responses. J Am Coll Nutr. 2000;19:320S–325S.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Champagne ET, (ed). Rice: chemistry and technology. 3rd edn. St. Paul, MN: American Association of Cereal Chemists; 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Foster-Powell, Holt SH, Brand-Miller JC. International table of glycemic index and glycemic load values: 2002. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76:5–56.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Sun Q, Spiegelman D, van Dam RM, Holmes MD, Malik VS, Willett WC, et al. White rice, brown rice, and risk of type 2 diabetes in US men and women. Arch Intern Med. 2010;170(11):961–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Brand-Miller J, Pang E, Bramall L. Rice: a high or low glycemic index food? Am J Clin Nutr. 1992;56:1034–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Horowitz M, O’Donovan D, Jones KL, Feinle C, Rayner CK, Samsom M. Gastric emptying in diabetes: clinical significance and treatment. Diabet Med. 2002;19:177–94.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Marathe CS, Rayner CK, Jones KL, Horowitz M. Relationships between gastric emptying, postprandial glycemia, and incretin hormones. Diabetes Care. 2013;36(5):1396–405.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Clegg ME, Ranawana V, Shafat A, Henry CJ. Soups increase satiety through delayed gastric emptying yet increased glycaemic response. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2013;67(1):8–11.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Geliebter A, Grillot CL, Aviram-Friedman R, Haq S, Yahav E, Hashim SA. Effects of oatmeal and corn flakes cereal breakfasts on satiety, gastric emptying, glucose, and appetite-related hormones. Ann Nutr Metab. 2015;66:93–103.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Bornhorst GM, Chang LQ, Rutherfurd SM, Moughan PJ, Singh RP. Gastric emptying rate and chyme characteristics for cooked brown and white rice meals in vivo. J Sci Food Agric. 2013;23:2900–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. van Avesaat M, Troost FJ, Ripken D, Hendriks HF, Masclee AAM. Ileal brake activation: macronutrient-specific effects on eating behavior? Int J Obes. 2015;39(2):235–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Siegle ML, Schmid HR, Ehrlein HJ. Effects of ileal infusions of nutrients on motor patterns of canine small intestine. Am J Physiol. 1990;259:G78–G85.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Haralampu S. Resistant starch—a review of the physical properties and biological impact of RS3. Carbohydr Polym. 2000;41(3):285–92.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Kerberg AÅ, Liljeberg H, Bjö I. Effects of amylose/amylopectin ratio and baking conditions on resistant starch formation and glycaemic indices. J Cereal Sci. 1998;28:71–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Zhu L, Gu M, Meng X, Cheung SCK, Yu H, Huang J, et al. High-amylose rice improves indices of animal health in normal and diabetic rats. Plant Biotechnol J. 2012;10:353–62.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Sparti A, Milon H, Di Vetta V, Schneiter P, Tappy L, Jéquier E, et al. Effect of diets high or low in unavailable and slowly digestible carbohydrates on the pattern of 24-h substrate oxidation and feelings of hunger in humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;72:1461–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Goodfellow BJ, Wilson RH. A fourier transform IR study of the gelation of amylose and amylopectin. Biopolymers. 1990;30:1183–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Zhou X, Baik B-K, Wang R, Lim S-T. Retrogradation of waxy and normal corn starch gels by temperature cycling. J Cereal Sci. 2010;51(1):57–65.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Zhang G, Sofyan M, Hamaker BR. Slowly digestible state of starch: mechanism of slow digestion property of gelatinized maize starch. J Agric Food Chem. 2008;56(12):4695–702.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Patindol JA, Guraya HS, Champagne ET, McClung AM. Nutritionally important starch fractions of rice cultivars grown in southern United States. J Food Sci. 2010;75:H137–144.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Sanaka M, Yamamoto T, Nakayama S, Nagasawa K, Kuyama Y. Reliability of the time to maximal [13CO2] excretion and the half-[13CO2] excretion time as a gastric emptying parameter: assessments using the Wagner-Nelson method. J Smooth Muscle Res. 2007;43:201–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Sanaka M, Nakada K. Stable isotope breath tests for assessing gastric emptying: a comprehensive review. J Smooth Muscle Res. 2010;46:267–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Haycock GB, Schwartz GJ, Wisotsky DH. Geometric method for measuring body surface area: a height-weight formula validated in infants, children, and adults. J Pediatr. 1978;93:62–66.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Perri F, Pastore MA, Annese V. 13C-octanoic acid breath test for measuring gastric emptying of solids. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2005;9:3–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Englyst HN, Kingman SM, Cummings JH. Classification and measurement of nutritionally important starch fractions. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1992;46:S33–S50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Englyst KN, Englyst HN, Hudson GJ, Cole TJ, Cummings JH. Rapidly available glucose in foods: an in vitro measurement that reflects the glycemic response. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;69:448–54.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Reed M, Ai Y, Leutcher J, Jane JL. Effects of cooking methods and starch structures on starch hydrolysis rates of rice. J Food Sci. 2013;78:H1076–H1080.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Sanaka M, Yamamoto T, Kuyama Y. Retention, fixation, and loss of the [13C] label: A review for the understanding of gastric emptying breath tests. Dig Dis Sci. 2008;53:1747–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Wang Z, Ichikawa S, Kozu H, Neves MA, Nakajima M, Uemura K, et al. Direct observation and evaluation of cooked white and brown rice digestion by gastric digestion simulator provided with peristaltic function. Food Res Int. 2015;71:16–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Kong F, Oztop MH, Singh RP, McCarthy MJ. Physical changes in white and brown rice during simulated gastric digestion. J Food Sci. 2011;76(6):E450–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Linnebjerg H, Park S, Kothare PA, Trautmann ME, Mace K, Fineman M, et al. Effect of exenatide on gastric emptying and relationship to postprandial glycemia in type 2 diabetes. Regul Pept. 2008;151(1):123–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Pi-Sunyer X, Astrup A, Fujioka K, Greenway F, Halpern A, Krempf M, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of 3.0 mg of liraglutide in weight management. N Engl J Med. 2015;373(1):11–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Van Can J, Sloth B, Jensen C, Flint A, Blaak E, Saris W. Effects of the once-daily GLP-1 analog liraglutide on gastric emptying, glycemic parameters, appetite and energy metabolism in obese, non-diabetic adults. Int J Obes. 2013;38:784–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge the Ingestive Behavior Research Center, the Industry Fellows Program in the Department of Food Science, and the Whistler Center for Carbohydrate Research for their financial support in this work.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Food Science, Whistler Center for Carbohydrate Research, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

    Elizabeth A. Pletsch & Bruce R. Hamaker

Authors
  1. Elizabeth A. Pletsch
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Bruce R. Hamaker
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Bruce R. Hamaker.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Pletsch, E.A., Hamaker, B.R. Brown rice compared to white rice slows gastric emptying in humans. Eur J Clin Nutr 72, 367–373 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41430-017-0003-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41430-017-0003-z

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links