Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Article
  • Published:

Phthalate levels in indoor dust and associations to croup in the SELMA study

Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology volume 31, pages 257–265 (2021)Cite this article

Abstract

Phthalates are ubiquitous indoor pollutants which have been associated with child airway disease although results are inconclusive. This study examined associations between phthalate levels in residential indoor dust and croup during infancy. Settled indoor dust was collected in 482 homes of 6-month-old infants in the Swedish Environmental Longitudinal, Mother and child, Asthma and allergy (SELMA) study and analysed for seven phthalates and one phthalate replacement using gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The incidence of parental reported croup at 12 months was 6.4% for girls and 13.4% for boys. Associations between phthalate dust levels and croup were analysed by logistic regression adjusted for potential confounders. We found significant associations between di-ethyl phthalate (DEP) and di-ethyl-hexyl phthalate (DEHP) in residential dust and parental reported croup (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 1.71; 95% CI: 1.08–2.73 and 2.07; 1.00–4.30, respectively). Stratified results for boys showed significant associations between DEP and butyl-benzyl phthalate (BBzP) in dust and infant croup (aOR = 1.86; 95% CI: 1.04–3.34 and 2.02; 1.04–3.90, respectively). Results for girls had questionable statistical power due to few cases. Our results suggest that exposure to phthalates in dust is a risk factor for airway inflammatory responses in infant children.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1: Associations between seven phthalates and DiNCH dust levels and croup at 12 months expressed as adjusted odds ratios and 95% CI, for all children and stratified by sex.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Swedish Chemical Agency. Phthalates which are toxic for reproduction and endocrine-disrupting—proposals for a phase-out in Sweden. Stockholm: Swedish Chemical Agency; 2015. Report No. 4/15.

  2. Larsson K, Berglund M. Children’s exposure to chemicals in indoor environments—a literature survey of chemicals in dust. Karolinska Institutet, Swedish Environmental Protection Agency; 2018.

  3. Lucattini L, Poma G, Covaci A, de Boer J, Lamoree MH, Leonards PEG. A review of semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) in the indoor environment: occurrence in consumer products, indoor air and dust. Chemosphere 2018;201:466–82.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Wormuth M, Scheringer M, Vollenweider M, Hungerbuhler K. What are the sources of exposure to eight frequently used phthalic acid esters in Europeans? Risk Anal. 2006;26:803–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Beko G, Weschler CJ, Langer S, Callesen M, Toftum J, Clausen G. Children’s phthalate intakes and resultant cumulative exposures estimated from urine compared with estimates from dust ingestion, inhalation and dermal absorption in their homes and daycare centers. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e62442.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Weiss JM, Gustafsson A, Gerde P, Bergman A, Lindh CH, Krais AM. Daily intake of phthalates, MEHP, and DINCH by ingestion and inhalation. Chemosphere 2018;208:40–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Ferguson A, Penney R, Solo-Gabriele H. A review of the field on children’s exposure to environmental contaminants: a risk assessment approach. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2017;14:1–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Tulve NS, Suggs JC, McCurdy T, Cohen Hubal EA, Moya J. Frequency of mouthing behavior in young children. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 2002;12:259–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Bølling AK, Holme JA, Bornehag CG, Nygaard UC, Bertelsen RJ, Nånberg E, et al. Pulmonary phthalate exposure and asthma - is PPAR a plausible mechanistic link? EXCLI J. 2013;12:733–59.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Li M-C, Chen C-H, Guo YL. Phthalate esters and childhood asthma: a systematic review and congener-specific meta-analysis. Environ Pollut. 2017;229:655–60.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Kolarik B, Naydenov K, Larsson M, Bornehag C-G, Sundell J. The association between phthalates in dust and allergic diseases among Bulgarian children. Environ Health Perspect. 2008;116:98–103.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Bi C, Maestre JP, Li H, Zhang G, Givehchi R, Mahdavi A, et al. Phthalates and organophosphates in settled dust and HVAC filter dust of U.S. low-income homes: association with season, building characteristics, and childhood asthma. Environ Int. 2018;121:916–30.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Noutsios GT, Floros J. Childhood asthma: causes, risks, and protective factors; a role of innate immunity. Swiss Med Wkly. 2014;144:1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Mellis C. Respiratory noises: how useful are they clinically? Pediatr Clin North Am. 2009;56:1–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Tantisira KG, Colvin R, Tonascia J, Strunk RC, Weiss ST, Fuhlbrigge AL, et al. Airway responsiveness in mild to moderate childhood asthma: sex influences on the natural history. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;178:325–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Shu H, Wikstrom S, Jönsson BAG, Lindh CH, Svensson Å, Nånberg E, et al. Prenatal phthalate exposure was associated with croup in Swedish infants. Acta Paediatr. 2018;107:1011–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Bjornson CL, Johnson DW. Croup. Lancet 2008;371:329–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Bornehag CG, Moniruzzaman S, Larsson M, Lindstrom CB, Hasselgren M, Bodin A, et al. The SELMA study: a birth cohort study in Sweden following more than 2000 mother-child pairs. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2012;26:456–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Lindh CH, Rylander L, Toft G, Axmon A, Rignell-Hydbom A, Giwercman A, et al. Blood serum concentrations of perfluorinated compounds in men from Greenlandic Inuit and European populations. Chemosphere 2012;88:1269–75.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Jefferis BJ, Lawlor DA, Ebrahim S, Wannamethee SG, Feyerabend C, Doig M, et al. Cotinine-assessed second-hand smoke exposure and risk of cardiovascular disease in older adults. Heart 2010;96:854–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. MacIntyre EA, Gehring U, Molter A, Fuertes E, Klumper C, Kramer U, et al. Air pollution and respiratory infections during early childhood: an analysis of 10 European birth cohorts within the ESCAPE Project. Environ Health Perspect. 2014;122:107–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Mazurek H, Breborowicz A, Doniec Z, Emeryk A, Krenke K, Kulus M, et al. Acute subglottic laryngitis. Etiology, epidemiology, pathogenesis and clinical picture. Adv Respir Med. 2019;87:308–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Bornehag CG, Sundell J, Weschler CJ, Sigsgaard T, Lundgren B, Hasselgren M, et al. The association between asthma and allergic symptoms in children and phthalates in house dust: a nested case-control study. Environ Health Perspect. 2004;112:1393–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Hsu NY, Lee CC, Wang JY, Li YC, Chang HW, Chen CY, et al. Predicted risk of childhood allergy, asthma, and reported symptoms using measured phthalate exposure in dust and urine. Indoor Air. 2012;22:186–99.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Ait Bamai Y, Araki A, Kawai T, Tsuboi T, Saito I, Yoshioka E, et al. Associations of phthalate concentrations in floor dust and multi-surface dust with the interior materials in Japanese dwellings. Sci Total Environ. 2014;468–469:147–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Odebeatu CC, Taylor T, Fleming LE, J. Osborne N. Phthalates and asthma in children and adults: US NHANES 2007–2012. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2019;26:28256–69.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Whyatt RM, Perzanowski MS, Just AC, Rundle AG, Donohue KM, Calafat AM, et al. Asthma in inner-city children at 5-11 years of age and prenatal exposure to phthalates: the Columbia Center for Children’s Environmental Health Cohort. Environ Health Perspect. 2014;122:1141–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Bornehag CG, Nanberg E. Phthalate exposure and asthma in children. Int J Androl. 2010;33:333–45.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Shu H, Jonsson BAG, Gennings C, Svensson A, Nanberg E, Lindh CH, et al. Temporal trends of phthalate exposures during 2007-2010 in Swedish pregnant women. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol. 2018;28:437–47.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Silva MJ, Jia T, Samandar E, Preau JL Jr., Calafat AM. Environmental exposure to the plasticizer 1, 2-cyclohexane dicarboxylic acid, diisononyl ester (DINCH) in US adults (2000-2012). Environ Res. 2013;126:159–63.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Bergh C, Torgrip R, Emenius G, Ostman C. Organophosphate and phthalate esters in air and settled dust—a multi-location indoor study. Indoor Air. 2011;21:67–76.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Lunderberg DM, Kristensen K, Liu Y, Misztal PK, Tian Y, Arata C, et al. Characterizing airborne phthalate concentrations and dynamics in a normally occupied residence. Environ Sci Technol. 2019;53:7337–46.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Tyrrell J, Melzer D, Henley W, Galloway TS, Osborne NJ. Associations between socioeconomic status and environmental toxicant concentrations in adults in the USA: NHANES 2001–2010. Environ Int. 2013;59:328–35.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Haustein K-O. Smoking and poverty. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil. 2006;13:312–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Vlismas K, Stavrinos V, Panagiotakos DB. Socio-economic status, dietary habits and health-related outcomes in various parts of the world: a review. Cent Eur J Public Health. 2009;17:55–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Guo Y, Kannan K. Comparative assessment of human exposure to phthalate esters from house dust in China and the United States. Environ Sci Technol. 2011;45:3788–94.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Sakhi AK, Cequier E, Becher R, Bolling AK, Borgen AR, Schlabach M, et al. Concentrations of selected chemicals in indoor air from Norwegian homes and schools. Sci Total Environ. 2019;674:1–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Andersen C, Krais AM, Eriksson AC, Jakobsson J, Londahl J, Nielsen J, et al. Inhalation and dermal uptake of particle and gas-phase phthalates—a human exposure study. Environ Sci Technol. 2018;52:12792–800.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Weschler CJ, Nazaroff WW. SVOC partitioning between the gas phase and settled dust indoors. Atmos Environ (1994). 2010;44:3609–20.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Robinson L, Miller R. The impact of bisphenol A and phthalates on allergy, asthma, and immune function: a review of latest findings. Curr Environ Health Rep. 2015;2:379–87.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Holt P, Jones C. The development of the immune system during pregnancy and early life. Allergy 2000;55:688–97.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. ECHA. Substance Information Diethyl phthalate: European Chemicals Agency 2020 [updated 26/05/2020]. Available from: https://echa.europa.eu/substance-information/-/substanceinfo/100.001.409.

  43. Van Bever H, Wieringa M, Weyler J, Nelen V, Fortuin M, Vermeire P. Croup and recurrent croup: their association with asthma and allergy. Eur J Pediatr. 1999;158:253–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank all the participating families.

Funding

This study was funded by grants from the Swedish Research Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences and Spatial Planning (Formas), the Swedish Foundation for Health Care Sciences and Allergy Research, Swedish Asthma and Allergy Association’s Research Foundation, and the County Council of Värmland.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Health Sciences, Karlstad University, Karlstad, Sweden

    Anna-Sofia Preece, Huan Shu, Malin Knutz & Carl-Gustaf Bornehag

  2. Division of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden

    Annette M. Krais

  3. School of Medical Science, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden

    Sverre Wikström

  4. Department of Preventive Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York City, New York, USA

    Carl-Gustaf Bornehag

Authors
  1. Anna-Sofia Preece
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Huan Shu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Malin Knutz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Annette M. Krais
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Sverre Wikström
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Carl-Gustaf Bornehag
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Carl-Gustaf Bornehag.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Preece, AS., Shu, H., Knutz, M. et al. Phthalate levels in indoor dust and associations to croup in the SELMA study. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 31, 257–265 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-020-00264-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-020-00264-7

Keywords

Search

Advanced search

Quick links