Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

Temporal trends and developmental patterns of plasma polybrominated diphenyl ether concentrations over a 15-year period between 1998 and 2013

Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology volume 29, pages 49–60 (2019)Cite this article

Abstract

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were used extensively as flame retardants in furniture containing polyurethane foam until they were phased out of use, beginning in 2004. We examined temporal changes in plasma PBDE concentrations from 1998 to 2013 and characterized patterns of exposure over the early lifecourse among 334 children (903 samples) between birth and 9 years. We examined time trends by regressing PBDE concentration on year of sample collection in age-adjusted models and characterized developmental trajectories using latent class growth analysis (LCGA). Controlling for age, BDE-47 concentrations decreased 5% (95% confidence interval (CI): −9, −2) per year between 1998 and 2013. When considering only postnatal samples, this reduction strengthened to 13% (95% CI: −19, −9). Findings for BDE-99, 100 and 153 were similar, except that BDE-153 decreased to a lesser extent when both prenatal and postnatal samples were considered (−2%, 95% CI: −7, 0). These findings suggest that, on average, pentaBDE body burdens have decreased since the 2004 phase-out of these chemicals. When examining developmental period, PBDE concentrations peaked during toddler years for the majority of children, however, our observation of several unique trajectories suggests that a single measure may not accurately reflect exposure to PBDEs throughout early life.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Relevant articles

Open Access articles citing this article.

Access options

Rent or buy this article

Get just this article for as long as you need it

$39.95

Learn more

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

References

  1. Callahan P, Roe S, Hawthorne M Playing with Fire. Chicago Tribune, Chicago, IL, USA, 2012.

  2. Cal-117. Requirements, test procedure and apparatus for testing the flame retardance of resilient filling materials used in upholstered furniture (Technical Bulletin 117). In: FurnishingsCBoTIaH (eds) [Modified 1990], 1975.

  3. EPA. An exposure assessment of polybrominated diphenyl ethers. In: Assessment National Center for Environmental Assessment Office of Research and Development (ed). Washington, DC: Environmental Protection Agency, 2010. EPA/600/R-08/086F.

  4. Corportation GLC. Great Lakes Chemical Corporation completes phase-out of two flame retardants. Indianapolic, IN: Great Lakes Chemical Corportation; 2005. In.

    Google Scholar 

  5. EPA. DecaBDE Phase-out Initiative. Washington D.C., United States: United States Environmental Protection Agency: Chemical Safety and Pollution Prevention; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Fromme H, Becher G, Hilger B, Volkel W. Brominated flame retardants - Exposure and risk assessment for the general population. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2016;219:1–23.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Linares V, Belles M, Domingo JL. Human exposure to PBDE and critical evaluation of health hazards. Arch Toxicol. 2015;89:335–56.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Talsness CE. Overview of toxicological aspects of polybrominated diphenyl ethers: a flame-retardant additive in several consumer products. Environ Res. 2008;108:158–67.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. UNEP. United Nations Environment Programme. Technical review of the implications of reclycling commercial Penta and Octabromodiphenyl ethers., 2010.

  10. Alcock RE, Sweetman AJ, Prevedouros K, Jones KC. Understanding levels and trends of BDE-47 in the UK and North America: an assessment of principal reservoirs and source inputs. Environ Int. 2003;29:691–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Hites RA. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in the environment and in people: a meta-analysis of concentrations. Environ Sci Technol. 2004;38:945–56.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Cobb D. Analysis of FR chemicals added to foams, fabric, batting, loose fill and barriers. Memorandum to Dale R Ray, Project Manager, Upholstered Furniture, Consumer Products Safety Commission 2005.

  13. Abbasi G, Buser AM, Soehl A, Murray MW, Diamond ML. Stocks and flows of PBDEs in products from use to waste in the U.S. and Canada from 1970 to 2020. Environ Sci Technol. 2015;49:1521–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Zhang X, Diamond ML, Robson M. Harrad S Sources, emissions, and fate of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and polychlorinated biphenyls indoors in Toronto, Canada. Environ Sci Technol. 2011;45:3268–74.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Frederiksen M, Vorkamp K, Thomsen M, Knudsen LE. Human internal and external exposure to PBDEs--a review of levels and sources. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2009;212:109–34.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Lorber M. Exposure of Americans to polybrominated diphenyl ethers. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol. 2008;18:2–19.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. ATSDR. Toxicological profile for polybrominated biphenyls and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). In: Registry AfTSD, (ed). Atlanta, GA, 2017.

  18. Dassanayake RM, Wei H, Chen RC, Li A. Optimization of the matrix solid phase dispersion extraction procedure for the analysis of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in human placenta. Anal Chem. 2009;81:9795–801.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Fang J, Nyberg E, Winnberg U, Bignert A, Bergman A. Spatial and temporal trends of the Stockholm Convention POPs in mothers’ milk -- a global review. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2015;22:8989–9041.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Geyer H, Schramm K, Darnerud P, Aune M, Feicht E, Fried K. Terminal elimination half-lives of the brominated flame retardants TBBPA, HBCD, and lower brominated PBDEs in humans. Organomet Comp. 2004;66:5.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Lunder S, Hovander L, Athanassiadis I, Bergman A. Significantly higher polybrominated diphenyl ether levels in young U.S. children than in their mothers. Environ Sci Technol. 2010;44:5256–62.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Hoffman K, Webster TF, Sjodin A, Stapleton HM. Toddler’s behavior and its impacts on exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol. 2017;27:193–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Hurley S, Goldberg D, Nelson DO, Guo W, Wang Y, Baek HG, et al. Temporal Evaluation of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ether (PBDE) Serum Levels in Middle-Aged and Older California Women, 2011-5. Environ Sci Technol. 2017;51:4697–704.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Sjodin A, Schecter A, Jones R, Wong LY, Colacino JA, Malik-Bass N, et al. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers, 2,2’,4,4’,5,5’-hexachlorobiphenyl (PCB-153), and p,p’-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p’-DDE) concentrations in sera collected in 2009 from Texas children. Environ Sci Technol. 2014;48:8196–202.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Toms LM, Sjodin A, Harden F, Hobson P, Jones R, Edenfield E, et al. Serum polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) levels are higher in children (2-5 years of age) than in infants and adults. Environ Health Perspect. 2009;117:1461–5.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Zota AR, Linderholm L, Park JS, Petreas M, Guo T, Privalsky ML, et al. Temporal comparison of PBDEs, OH-PBDEs, PCBs, and OH-PCBs in the serum of second trimester pregnant women recruited from San Francisco General Hospital, California. Environ Sci Technol. 2013;47:11776–84.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Perera FP, Rauh V, Whyatt RM, Tsai WY, Tang D, Diaz D, et al. Effect of prenatal exposure to airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on neurodevelopment in the first 3 years of life among inner-city children. Environ Health Perspect. 2006;114:1287–92.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Mayer S, Jencks C. Poverty and the distribition of material hardship. J Hum Resour. 1988;24:88–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Jones R, Edenfield E, Anderson S, Zhang Y, Sjodin A. Semi-automated extraction and cleanup method for measuring persistent organic pollutants in human serum. Organomet Comp. 2012;74:97–98.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Sjodin A, Jones RS, Lapeza CR, Focant JF, McGahee EE 3rd, Patterson DG Jr.. Semiautomated high-throughput extraction and cleanup method for the measurement of polybrominated diphenyl ethers, polybrominated biphenyls, and polychlorinated biphenyls in human serum. Anal Chem. 2004;76:1921–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Phillips DL, Pirkle JL, Burse VW, Bernert JT Jr., Henderson LO, Needham LL. Chlorinated hydrocarbon levels in human serum: effects of fasting and feeding. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol. 1989;18:495–500.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Cowell WJ, Sjodin A, Jones R, Wang Y, Wang S, Herbstman JB. Determinants of prenatal exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) among urban, minority infants born between 1998-2006. Environ Pollut. 2018;223:774–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Baccarelli A, Pfeiffer R, Consonni D, Pesatori AC, Bonzini M, Patterson DG Jr, et al. Handling of dioxin measurement data in the presence of non-detectable values: overview of available methods and their application in the Seveso chloracne study. Chemosphere. 2005;60:898–906.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Nagin DS. Group-based trajectory modeling: an overview. Ann Nutr Metab. 2014;65:205–10.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Jones B, Nagin D. KA R SAS procedure based on mixture models for estimating developmental trajectories. Sociol Methodol Res. 2001;29:374–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Nagin D. Group-based modeling of development.. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; 2005.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  37. Castorina R, Bradman A, Sjodin A, Fenster L, Jones RS, Harley KG, et al. Determinants of serum polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) levels among pregnant women in the CHAMACOS cohort. Environ Sci Technol. 2011;45:6553–60.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Eskenazi B, Chevrier J, Rauch SA, Kogut K, Harley KG, Johnson C, et al. In utero and childhood polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) exposures and neurodevelopment in the CHAMACOS study. Environ Health Perspect. 2013;121:257–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Sagiv SK, Kogut K, Gaspar FW, Gunier RB, Harley KG, Parra K, et al. Prenatal and childhood polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) exposure and attention and executive function at 9-12 years of age. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2015;52:151–61.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Vuong AM, Braun JM, Yolton K, Xie C, Webster GM, Sjodin A, et al. Prenatal and postnatal polybrominated diphenyl ether exposure and visual spatial abilities in children. Environ Res. 2017;153:83–92.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Vuong AM, Webster GM, Romano ME, Braun JM, Zoeller RT, Hoofnagle AN, et al. Maternal polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) exposure and thyroid hormones in maternal and cord sera: The HOME Study, Cincinnati, USA. Environ Health Perspect. 2015;123:1079–85.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Gump BB, Yun S, Kannan K. Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) exposure in children: possible associations with cardiovascular and psychological functions. Environ Res. 2014;132:244–50.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Herbstman JB, Sjodin A, Apelberg BJ, Witter FR, Patterson DG, Halden RU, et al. Determinants of prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in an urban population. Environ Health Perspect. 2007;115:1794–1800.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Herbstman JB, Sjodin A, Kurzon M, Lederman SA, Jones RS, Rauh V, et al. Prenatal exposure to PBDEs and neurodevelopment. Environ Health Perspect. 2010;118:712–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Horton MK, Bousleiman S, Jones R, Sjodin A, Liu X, Whyatt R, et al. Predictors of serum concentrations of polybrominated flame retardants among healthy pregnant women in an urban environment: a cross-sectional study. Environ Health: a Glob Access Sci Source. 2013;12:23.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Jacobson MH, Barr DB, Marcus M, Muir AB, Lyles RH, Howards PP, et al. Serum polybrominated diphenyl ether concentrations and thyroid function in young children. Environ Res. 2016;149:222–30.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Mazdai A, Dodder NG, Abernathy MP, Hites RA, Bigsby RM. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in maternal and fetal blood samples. Environ Health Perspect. 2003;111:1249–52.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Rose M, Bennett DH, Bergman A, Fangstrom B, Pessah IN, Hertz-Picciotto I. PBDEs in 2-5 year-old children from California and associations with diet and indoor environment. Environ Sci Technol. 2010;44:2648–53.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Stapleton HM, Eagle S, Anthopolos R, Wolkin A, Miranda ML. Associations between polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants, phenolic metabolites, and thyroid hormones during pregnancy. Environ Health Perspect. 2011;119:1454–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Stapleton HM, Eagle S, Sjodin A, Webster TF. Serum PBDEs in a North Carolina toddler cohort: associations with handwipes, house dust, and socioeconomic variables. Environ Health Perspect. 2012;120:1049–54.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Baskin D, Sommers I. Trajectories of exposure to community violence and mental health symptoms among serious adolescent offenders. Crim Justice Behav. 2015;42:587–609.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Azad MB, Lissitsyn Y, Miller GE, Becker AB, HayGlass KT, Kozyrskyj AL. Influence of socioeconomic status trajectories on innate immune responsiveness in children. PLoS ONE. 2012;7:e38669.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Ziyab AH, Karmaus W, Kurukulaaratchy RJ, Zhang H, Arshad SH. Developmental trajectories of Body Mass Index from infancy to 18 years of age: prenatal determinants and health consequences. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2014;68:934–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Chen Q, Just AC, Miller RL, Perzanowski MS, Goldstein IF, Perera FP, et al. Using latent class growth analysis to identify childhood wheeze phenotypes in an urban birth cohort. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2012;108:311–5. e311

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Lupton SJ, McGarrigle BP, Olson JR, Wood TD, Aga DS. Human liver microsome-mediated metabolism of brominated diphenyl ethers 47, 99, and 153 and identification of their major metabolites. Chem Res Toxicol. 2009;22:1802–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Bramwell L, Glinianaia SV, Rankin J, Rose M, Fernandes A, Harrad S, et al. Associations between human exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ether flame retardants via diet and indoor dust, and internal dose: A systematic review. Environ Int. 2016;92-93:680–94.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Gyalpo T, Toms LM, Mueller JF, Harden FA, Scheringer M, Hungerbuhler K. Insights into PBDE uptake, body burden, and elimination gained from Australian Age-Concentration Trends Observed Shortly after Peak Exposure. Environ Health Perspect. 2015;123:978–84.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Quinn CL, Wania F. Understanding differences in the body burden-age relationships of bioaccumulating contaminants based on population cross sections versus individuals. Environ Health Perspect. 2012;120:554–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Darrow LA, Jacobson MH, Preston EV, Lee GE, Panuwet P, Hunter RE Jr, et al. Predictors of serum polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) concentrations among children aged 1-5 Years. Environ Sci & Technol. 2017;51:645–54.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Costa O, Lopez-Espinosa MJ, Vizcaino E, Murcia M, Iniguez C, Navarrete-Munoz EM, et al. Dietary and household sources of prenatal exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the INMA Birth Cohort (Spain). Environ Sci Technol. 2016;50:5935–44.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. EPA. Reducing your child’s exposure to flame retardant chemicals. 2016, EPA-740-16-001.

  62. S07621/A10050-A. NY State Senate Bill. New York, 2004.

  63. Petreas M, Oros D. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in California wastestreams. Chemosphere. 2009;74:996–1001.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Shaw SD, Blum A, Weber R, Kannan K, Rich D, Lucas D, et al. Halogenated flame retardants: do the fire safety benefits justify the risks? Rev Environ Health. 2010;25:261–305.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by NIH R01 ES021806. During preparation of this manuscript, WJC was supported by NIH T32 ES023772, NIH T32 ES007322, and EPA FP-91779001. We gratefully acknowledge the contribution of Miss Shenika Christopher who helped to identify potential determinants of interest for investigation in this study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Columbia Center for Children’s Environmental Health, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032, USA

    Whitney J. Cowell, Ya Wang, Shuang Wang & Julie B. Herbstman

  2. Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032, USA

    Whitney J. Cowell & Julie B. Herbstman

  3. Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, 30341, USA

    Andreas Sjödin & Richard Jones

  4. Department of Biostatistics, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032, USA

    Ya Wang & Shuang Wang

Authors
  1. Whitney J. Cowell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Andreas Sjödin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Richard Jones
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Ya Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Shuang Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Julie B. Herbstman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Julie B. Herbstman.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Electronic supplementary material

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Cowell, W.J., Sjödin, A., Jones, R. et al. Temporal trends and developmental patterns of plasma polybrominated diphenyl ether concentrations over a 15-year period between 1998 and 2013. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 29, 49–60 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-018-0031-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-018-0031-3

Keywords

  • PBDE
  • Flame retardant
  • Exposure
  • Prenatal
  • Childhood

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links