Main

Evidence exists for an association between maternal use of a vitamin supplement with folic acid in early pregnancy and a reduced risk for offspring with cleft lip with/without cleft palate (CLP). This, evidence includes, i) epidemiologic studies that have shown reductions in both occurrence and recurrence (subsequent affected sibling) risks of CLP in infants whose mothers took vitamin supplements containing folic acid (1–11), ii) a reduction in prevalence of CLP following mandatory folic acid fortification in the US (12), iii) mothers' use of folic acid antagonist medications associated with an increased risk to deliver offspring with CLP (13), and iv) biologic plausibility for a relation between folic acid and reduced risk for CLP from experimental studies (14).

Although folate has been the focus for many of the inquiries about periconceptional nutrition and clefting, there have been a few observations made about dietary intake or use of supplements involving nutrients related to one-carbon metabolism other than folate. We recently observed decreased risks of CLP associated with increasing intakes of total protein, alanine, choline, methionine, cysteine, iron and riboflavin (15). Investigators in the Netherlands have observed reduced risks of CLP associated with increased maternal dietary intakes of several B-vitamins, including thiamine, niacin, pyridoxine, and increased intakes of vegetable protein, fiber, beta-carotene, vitamin C, vitamin E, iron, and magnesium (16,17). Recent observations from the Danish prospective study found evidence to indicate that use of B6 and B12 supplements reduced risks of CLP (18).

A few studies have specifically measured nutrients in serum among women who delivered infants with CLP (19–22). These studies found serum concentrations that were lower in zinc (20), vitamin B6 (19,21,22), vitamin B12 (21), and higher in folate (22). However, these studies relied on postpartum measurements rather than measurements in early pregnancy, i.e., closer to the relevant embryonic timing for the development of the lip and palate which is gestational weeks 5–10. The current prospective study attempts to extend the knowledge base on nutrition and CLP by measuring numerous nutrient analytes in mid-pregnancy sera obtained from a sizable population in California.

METHODS

This study included data from a large and unique mid-pregnancy serum specimen bank of pregnancies in California. Specimens were collected from approximately 70% of women during the 15th-18th week of pregnancy. These sera were collected from women who resided in selected regions of California (Orange, San Diego, and Central Valley counties). Sera were collected from women as part of the California Expanded AFP (alpha-feto-protein) program that screens for neural tube defects and cytogenetic abnormalities. The collection and processing of specimens was as follows: 1) samples were taken at draw stations using BD™ Vacutainer 3.5 mL serum separator tubes with no anticoagulants or preservatives and centrifuged within 30 min; 2) samples were received by designated clinical laboratories from draw stations at room temperature, on average 3.0 d after draw; 3) AFP screening assays were run on samples usually on the day received; 4) samples were refrigerated up to 7 d if further testing was necessary; 5) samples were sent on cold packs via overnight mail to the serum storage bank; and 6) samples were aliquoted, labeled with barcodes, and frozen at -80°C within an average of 3.5 d of receipt at the serum storage bank.

Each woman's serum specimen was linked with delivery outcome information to determine whether her fetus had CLP or any other structural malformation ascertained by the California Birth Defects Monitoring Program (23) or was born nonmalformed. The study included deliveries that were liveborn or stillborn (fetal deaths at greater than 20 wk gestation) in 2003–2004. There were approximately 111,077 births represented in both the serum bank and the California Birth Defects Monitoring Program. Among these births, we identified 105 deliveries that involved CLP (cases). Of the 105, we excluded 16 with diagnoses involving holoprosencephaly, limb/body/wall defect, trisomy 13, or trisomy 18 owing to a suspected different underlying etiology. Of the 89 CLP cases available for further study, 80 were isolated, i.e., the phenotype did not involve any other major congenital abnormality. We also randomly selected 409 pregnancy specimens that were collected during the same time period and corresponded to nonmalformed infants at delivery (controls). Thus, this was a nested case-control study. All samples were obtained with approval from the California Health and Welfare Agency Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects.

Serum specimens for the 498 cases and controls were sent on cold packs to the University of Bergen for analyte measurements. The analytes measured were: total homocysteine, methylmalonic acid, folate, vitamin B12, pyridoxal phosphate, pyridoxal, pyridoxic acid, riboflavin, total choline, betaine, methionine, methionine sulfoxide, total cysteine, cystathionine, asymmetric dimethylarginine, symmetric dimethylarginine, and creatinine. To assess cigarette smoking exposures, the metabolite cotinine was measured. No smoke exposure was defined as values <5 nmol/L and any smoke exposure was defined as ≥5 nmol/L. Details about all laboratory assays except total choline can be found elsewhere (24). Total choline was measured after conversion of choline esters to free choline in the presence of phospholipase D. A serum sample of 45 μL was mixed with 18 μL solution containing phospholipase D (Sigma Chemical Co., 2.8 U/μL), CaCl2 (86 mM), and Triton (0.44%). Then, 30 μL dithioerythritol (147 mM) and 60 μL TCA containing 400 μM d7Choline were added to the incubation mixture. After centrifugation, the supernatant was analyzed by LC-MS/MS using a method optimized for the determination of free choline (24). Laboratory analyses were performed blind to case and control status.

We compared mean levels of analytes between cases and controls with t tests. We also estimated risks using odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals (SAS 9.1). Models were constructed to assess effects associated with categories of the measured analytes. Specifically, we categorized measures as <25th percentile, 25th-74th percentile, and ≥75th percentile based on the distribution of each analyte among controls. The 25th-74th percentile was used as the reference group. We analyzed data for linear (logistic regression) and nonlinear (spline regression) effects and found no evidence for the latter. Available from intake forms associated with the screening program were the demographic factors maternal race/ethnicity (Hispanic; white, non Hispanic; Asian; Black; other) and maternal age (<25; 25–29; 30–34; and >34 y). These factors along with cigarette smoke exposure defined by cotinine levels were considered as covariates in some analyses.

RESULTS

Table 1 shows similar racial/ethnic and age distributions between cases and controls. Table 2 shows means and standard deviations of each measured analyte. We observed statistically significantly (p ≤ 0.05) lower mean levels in cases than in controls for vitamin B12, betaine, methionine sulfoxide, total cysteine, and symmetric dimethylarginine. Higher mean levels of choline were observed among cases than controls. Removing 11 cases and 32 controls considered exposed to cigarette smoke based on cotinine levels did not substantially alter these findings (not shown).

Table 1 Characteristics of cleft lip/palate-affected and unaffected (nonmalformed controls) deliveries, California 2003–2005
Full size table
Table 2 Mean values of selected biochemical measures in midpregnancy serum specimens among deliveries with cleft lip/palate and deliveries without malformations, California 2003–2005
Full size table

Given that comparisons of mean analyte values may not adequately reveal effects that could be associated with values toward the tails of the distribution, we explored lower and upper quartiles (cutpoints defined by the control distribution). As shown in Table 3, relative to the 25th-74th percentile, we observed three analytes (pyridoxal phosphate, choline, and symmetric dimethylarginine) that had associated odds ratios unlikely to be explained by random variation. For pyridoxal phosphate, elevated CLP risks were observed for low levels and for high levels. For choline, increased CLP risks were observed for higher levels. For symmetric dimethylarginine, increased CLP risks for low levels and decreased risks for high levels were observed. The risk pattern observed with choline and symmetric dimethylarginine each had statistically significant trend effects (Table 3). Adjustment of these analyses by maternal age and race/ethnicity (as well as folate, not shown) did not produce results that differed substantially from their unadjusted counterparts (Table 3). Analyses that excluded women with cigarette smoking exposure (11 case and 32 control women) also did not produce substantially different results.

Table 3 Effect estimates (odds ratios) for pregnancies affected with cleft lip/palate and selected biochemical measures in mid-pregnancy serum specimens
Full size table

We explored ratios of asymmetric dimethylarginine/arginine and symmetric dimethylarginine/arginine. These analyses revealed a highly significant trend for the symmetric dimethylarginine/arginine ratio (Table 3) with increasing ratio values associated with decreased CLP risk. Higher ratio values of asymmetric dimethylarginine/arginine were also associated with decreased CLP risk.

We simultaneously investigated four B-vitamin-related analytes, i.e., pyridoxal phosphate, riboflavin, betaine, and vitamin B12. Compared with women whose levels were not in the lowest quartile for any of these four measures, women whose levels included at least one low quartile measure showed an odds ratio of 2.0 (1.1–3.5) adjusted for maternal age and race/ethnicity. Women with two or more low quartile measures showed similar effects (odds ratio = 1.8 [1.0–3.2]) (data not shown).

DISCUSSION

To our knowledge, this is the first prospective study conducted to examine potential associations between several serum nutrients related to one-carbon metabolism and CLP risk. These data did not show a difference in mid-pregnancy serum folate levels between women whose pregnancies involved CLP and those whose pregnancies did not involve a structural malformation. The lack of an association with serum folate might be expected given that women were from a population whose food supply was fortified with folic acid and that most women likely were users of prenatal supplements containing folic acid as well as some of the other measured nutrients at the time of serum sampling. Our study shows notable findings for pyridoxal phosphate, choline, and symmetric dimethylarginine.

Pyridoxal phosphate is the predominant form of B6 in human plasma (25). Similar to our observations, lower levels of this vitamin have been associated with an increased CLP risk in several populations (19,21,22,26), and there is experimental evidence to support an association between clefting and B6. For example, mice fed a vitamin B6-containing diet show a reduction in corticosteroid-induced clefting (27). In addition, our analyses involving a B-vitamin-related index (pyridoxal phosphate, riboflavin, betaine, and vitamin B12) indicated low levels were associated with increased CLP risk. However, we also observed increased risks associated with higher levels, a finding not previously observed. Previous studies have collected specimens after delivery, often several years or more from the embryonic time of interest. The extent to which this design difference between current and previous work may contribute to differences in results is not clear. Pyridoxal phosphate has been shown to be stable for periods much longer and for freeze conditions at much higher temperatures than those associated with this study (25). However, our findings may be spurious given that pyridoxal phosphate is light sensitive (28) and we cannot be sure that specimen handling avoided exposure to light. Further, some of our observations with pyridoxal phosphate were consistent with an interpretation of random fluctuation.

Choline, known primarily in the diet as a component of lecithin, is key to several metabolic processes. Like folate, choline is involved in one-carbon metabolism, it is used for the synthesis of cell membrane phospholipids, and it is a precursor of the neurotransmitter, acetylcholine (29–33). The demand for choline is thought to be higher during pregnancy (33). Our observed association with choline is unlikely to be explained by differential use of prenatal vitamin supplements between case and control mothers because choline is not a typical component of multivitamin supplements. However, the increased CLP risk observed for increased levels of choline is counter to our a priori expectation. Previous work by us showed higher dietary intakes of choline to be associated with decreased risk of CLP (15) and neural tube defects (34). We have also observed higher serum choline levels to be associated with decreased risks of neural tube defects (unpublished observations). Neural tube defects and CLP are believed to share embryologic features primarily based on a shared embryologic origin of cells contributing to the neural tube and to craniofacial development. We cannot provide a meaningful explanation as to why the risk pattern would be opposite to what we might have predicted. We do know that other aspects surrounding one-carbon metabolism have been shown to differ between CLP and neural tube defects, e.g., in some studies, the association with the TT genotype of the MTHFR gene appears to be a modest risk factor for neural tube defects (35) and somewhat of a protective factor for CLP (36,37).

A biologic explanation to support our findings for symmetric dimethylarginine and asymmetric dimethylarginine, that is, primarily decreased risks with increased levels, is unknown. Symmetric dimethylarginine is an indicator of renal function, asymmetric dimethylarginine inhibits nitric oxide synthase, and both are considered markers or risk factors for cardiovascular disease (38–40). We are not aware of any previous studies involving these analytes relative to risks of birth defects. Elevated asymmetric dimethylarginine has been negatively implicated in other reproductive outcomes such as preeclampsia and intrauterine growth retardation (41). Therefore, the relative importance of these analytes to CLP risk will need to be replicated in future work.

Limitations of this study include, first, the collection of women's specimens on average 8 wk after closure of lip and palate. It is likely that bias due to this single point-in-time measurement would tend to result in an underestimate of measured effects. A second limitation is potential degradation of analytes based on collection and storage procedures. It has been demonstrated that folate may degrade when frozen at higher temperatures (−20°C) than were used for samples in this study (−80°C) (42). Such degradation would likely be nondifferential to case and control status and therefore tend to lead to underestimates of measured effects. Moreover, the average length of time between collection and frozen storage was similar between cases and controls. However, we explored whether even small differences between cases and controls influenced observed effects with analytes. Analyses that incorporated length of time into models produced similar odds ratios. Other limitations included a lack of information on supplemental and dietary intake of the nutrients studied here, a relatively small sample size that reduced power in some comparisons, findings for pyridoxal phosphate, choline, and symmetric dimethylarginine that may have arisen as a result of multiple comparisons, and an inability to investigate allelic variants of genes involved in the biosynthesis of some of the studied nutrients, e.g., folate, choline, B6, and B12. Additional study of genetic variants coupled with analyte measures would be informative owing to the known or suspected function of selected one-carbon metabolism-related genes and CLP (36,37,43–46).

Evidence continues to accumulate to show that nutrients, particularly folate, influence risks of structural birth defects. Our results substantially extend observations that vitamin B6 may be important in craniofacial development. Our observations with choline also highlight the complexity of one-carbon metabolism as it relates to embryonic development.