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The molecular arms race between African trypanosomes and humans

Nature Reviews Microbiology volume 12, pages 575–584 (2014)Cite this article

Subjects

Key Points

  • Humans resist the African trypanosome Trypanosoma brucei owing to the trypanolytic activity of the primate-specific protein apolipoprotein L1 (APOL1). APOL1 is associated with two different serum complexes, which are known as trypanosome lytic factor 1 (TLF1) and TLF2.

  • TLF1 uptake in the parasite is mediated by the surface receptor that is normally used to internalize the haptoglobin–haemoglobin complex for recovery of haem; high haptoglobin–haemoglobin levels can inhibit TLF1 uptake via receptor saturation. The mechanism of TLF2 uptake is not known, but it is not inhibited by haptoglobin–haemoglobin.

  • APOL1 kills trypanosomes following pH-dependent anionic-pore formation in the endocytic system, which disrupts ionic homeostasis.

  • Two T. brucei subspecies, T. b. rhodesiense and T. b. gambiense, can resist APOL1 toxicity and are thus able to infect humans, causing sleeping sickness.

  • The factors that enable T. b. rhodesiense and T. b. gambiense to resist APOL1, which are respectively known as serum resistance-associated (SRA) protein and T. b. gambiense-specific glycoprotein (TgsGP), are both derived from the variable surface glycoprotein (VSG) antigen of the parasite. Although SRA inhibits APOL1 following direct interaction with the toxin, TgsGP prevents APOL1 toxicity in a process that is associated with membrane lipid stiffening, which cannot protect the parasite against high APOL1 intake.

  • Full resistance of T. b. gambiense to APOL1 involves increased APOL1 digestion and mutation-mediated inactivation of the haptoglobin–haemoglobin receptor to prevent massive TLF1 uptake. This is relevant to the field situation, as in western and central Africa, the frequency of hypohaptoglobinaemia, which favours TLF1 uptake, is high owing to malaria.

  • Some APOL1 variants can escape neutralization by SRA and can thus kill T. b. rhodesiense. Such variants, which are known as G1 and G2, are frequent in western and central Africa, which could explain the elimination of T. b. rhodesiense from this part of the continent. However, these mutations are linked to a high probability of developing kidney sclerosis.

  • The APOL family shares structural and functional similarities with the apoptotic BCL2 family. APOL1 variants could induce kidney sclerosis by interfering with the control of autophagy and death programming in podocytes.

  • Humans are protected against infection by some species of African trypanosomes, owing to the presence of trypanosome-specific serum complexes. The two trypanosome subspecies that are responsible for human sleeping sickness, which are T. b. rhodesiense and T. b. gambiense, can evade this defence mechanism. Pays et al. review the mechanisms that are involved in the serum-mediated killing of trypanosomes and its evasion.

Abstract

Humans can survive bloodstream infection by African trypanosomes, owing to the activity of serum complexes that have efficient trypanosome-killing ability. The two trypanosome subspecies that are responsible for human sleeping sickness — Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense and Trypanosoma brucei gambiense — can evade this defence mechanism by expressing distinct resistance proteins. In turn, sequence variation in the gene that encodes the trypanosome-killing component in human serum has enabled populations in western Africa to restore resistance to T. b. rhodesiense, at the expense of the high probability of developing kidney sclerosis. These findings highlight the importance of resistance to trypanosomes in human evolution.

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Figure 1: Models for the uptake and intracellular trafficking of TLF1 and TLF2 in Trypanosoma brucei brucei.
Figure 2: Schematic structure of APOL1.
Figure 3: Differential APOL1 trafficking in the three Trypanosoma bruce subspecies.
Figure 4: VSG-derived adaptive proteins in human-infective Trypanosoma bruce subspecies.
Figure 5: Downregulation of TLF1 uptake in Trypanosoma brucei gambiense.
Figure 6: Molecular 'arms race' between African trypanosomes and humans.

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Acknowledgements

Research in the authors' laboratory was supported by the Walloon WELBIO excellence programme, the Belgian Fund for Scientific Research (FNRS) and the Interuniversity Attraction Poles Programme of Belgian Science Policy.

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  1. Pierrick Uzureau

    Present address: Present address: Laboratory of Experimental Medicine, André Vésale Hospital, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), B6110 Montigny-le-Tilleul, Belgium.,

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  1. Laboratory of Molecular Parasitology, Institut de biologie et de médecine moléculaires (IBMM), Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), 12 rue des Professeurs Jeener et Brachet, Gosselies, B6041, Belgium

    Etienne Pays, Benoit Vanhollebeke, Pierrick Uzureau, Laurence Lecordier & David Pérez-Morga

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Glossary

Haptoglobin

A serum protein that binds to free haemoglobin with high affinity and removes it from the circulation.

Flagellar pocket

An invagination of the trypanosome plasma membrane around the base of the flagellum. This region concentrates surface receptors and is the only site of exocytosis and endocytosis.

High-mannose glycans

Protein-bound glycans that have many mannose residues, often almost as many as in the precursor oligosaccharides before attachment to the protein.

Variant surface glycoproteins

(VSGs). The main surface antigens of African trypanosomes; they undergo continuous antigenic variation.

Colicins

Toxins that are produced and released by different strains of Escherichia coli. Some colicins kill target cells by forming ionic pores in cellular membranes.

Hypoglobinaemia

A serum condition that is characterized by low (<0.3 mg per ml) haptoglobin levels.

Anhaptoglobinaemia

An absence of haptoglobin in serum.

Expression site-associated gene

(ESAG). A gene that is associated with the variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) gene in the different telomeric sites for expression of that gene. Both ESAG and VSG genes are contained in the same polygenic transcription unit that recruits ribosomal RNA polymerase.

BCL2 family

A family of proteins that govern mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization and can be either pro- or anti-apoptotic. BCL2 proteins can interact with each other and with other apoptosis- and autophagy-controlling proteins via a BCL-homology 3 domain.

Podocyte

A type of kidney cell that wraps around the capillaries of the glomerulus. Podocytes filter blood, holding back large molecules such as proteins, and passing through small molecules such as water, salts and sugar, as the first step in forming urine.

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Pays, E., Vanhollebeke, B., Uzureau, P. et al. The molecular arms race between African trypanosomes and humans. Nat Rev Microbiol 12, 575–584 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro3298

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