Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Letter
  • Published:

Video game training enhances cognitive control in older adults

Nature volume 501, pages 97–101 (2013)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

Cognitive control is defined by a set of neural processes that allow us to interact with our complex environment in a goal-directed manner1. Humans regularly challenge these control processes when attempting to simultaneously accomplish multiple goals (multitasking), generating interference as the result of fundamental information processing limitations2. It is clear that multitasking behaviour has become ubiquitous in today’s technologically dense world3, and substantial evidence has accrued regarding multitasking difficulties and cognitive control deficits in our ageing population4. Here we show that multitasking performance, as assessed with a custom-designed three-dimensional video game (NeuroRacer), exhibits a linear age-related decline from 20 to 79 years of age. By playing an adaptive version of NeuroRacer in multitasking training mode, older adults (60 to 85 years old) reduced multitasking costs compared to both an active control group and a no-contact control group, attaining levels beyond those achieved by untrained 20-year-old participants, with gains persisting for 6 months. Furthermore, age-related deficits in neural signatures of cognitive control, as measured with electroencephalography, were remediated by multitasking training (enhanced midline frontal theta power and frontal–posterior theta coherence). Critically, this training resulted in performance benefits that extended to untrained cognitive control abilities (enhanced sustained attention and working memory), with an increase in midline frontal theta power predicting the training-induced boost in sustained attention and preservation of multitasking improvement 6 months later. These findings highlight the robust plasticity of the prefrontal cognitive control system in the ageing brain, and provide the first evidence, to our knowledge, of how a custom-designed video game can be used to assess cognitive abilities across the lifespan, evaluate underlying neural mechanisms, and serve as a powerful tool for cognitive enhancement.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on SpringerLink
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1: NeuroRacer experimental conditions and training design.
Figure 2: NeuroRacer multitasking costs.
Figure 3: Change in performance across sessions on independent tests of cognition for each experimental group.
Figure 4: ‘Sign and drive’ midline frontal theta activity and long-range theta coherence in younger adults and older adults pre- and post-training.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Botvinick, M. M., Braver, T. S., Barch, D. M., Carter, C. S. & Cohen, J. D. Conflict monitoring and cognitive control. Psychol. Rev. 108, 624–652 (2001)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Dux, P. E. et al. Training improves multitasking performance by increasing the speed of information processing in human prefrontal cortex. Neuron 63, 127–138 (2009)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Foehr, U. G. Media multitasking among American youth: prevalence, predictors, and pairings. (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2006)

  4. Gazzaley, A. in Principles of Frontal Lobe Function 2nd edn (eds D. T. Stuss & R. T. Knight ) Top-down modulation and cognitive aging. (Oxford Univ. Press, 2013)

    Google Scholar 

  5. Tucker-Drob, E. M. & Salthouse, T. A. Adult age trends in the relations among cognitive abilities. Psychol. Aging 23, 453–460 (2008)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Park, D. C. et al. Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span. Psychol. Aging 17, 299–320 (2002)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Clapp, W. C., Rubens, M. T., Sabharwal, J. & Gazzaley, A. Deficit in switching between functional brain networks underlies the impact of multitasking on working memory in older adults. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 108, 7212–7217 (2011)

    Article  CAS  ADS  Google Scholar 

  8. Verhaeghen, P., Steitz, D. W., Sliwinski, M. J. & Cerella, J. Aging and dual-task performance: a meta-analysis. Psychol. Aging 18, 443–460 (2003)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Erickson, K. I. et al. Training-induced plasticity in older adults: effects of training on hemispheric asymmetry. Neurobiol. Aging 28, 272–283 (2007)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Lussier, M., Gagnon, C. & Bherer, L. An investigation of response and stimulus modality transfer effects after dual-task training in younger and older. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 6, 129 (2012)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Zelinski, E. M. Far transfer in cognitive training of older adults. Restor. Neurol. Neurosci. 27, 455–471 (2009)

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Gazzaley, A., Cooney, J. W., Rissman, J. & D'Esposito, M. Top-down suppression deficit underlies working memory impairment in normal aging. Nature Neurosci. 8, 1298–1300 (2005)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Greenberg, L. M. T.O.V.A. Continuous Performance Test Manual. (The TOVA company, 1996)

    Google Scholar 

  14. Onton, J., Delorme, A. & Makeig, S. Frontal midline EEG dynamics during working memory. Neuroimage 27, 341–356 (2005)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Sauseng, P., Hoppe, J., Klimesch, W., Gerloff, C. & Hummel, F. C. Dissociation of sustained attention from central executive functions: local activity and interregional connectivity in the theta range. Eur. J. Neurosci. 25, 587–593 (2007)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Nigbur, R., Ivanova, G. & Sturmer, B. Theta power as a marker for cognitive interference. Clin. Neurophysiol. 122, 2185–2194 (2011)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Dahlin, E., Nyberg, L., Backman, L. & Neely, A. S. Plasticity of executive functioning in young and older adults: immediate training gains, transfer, and long-term maintenance. Psychol. Aging 23, 720–730 (2008)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Mitchell, D. J., McNaughton, N., Flanagan, D. & Kirk, I. J. Frontal-midline theta from the perspective of hippocampal ‘theta’. Prog. Neurobiol. 86, 156–185 (2008)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Buckner, R. L., Andrews-Hanna, J. R. & Schacter, D. L. The brain's default network: anatomy, function, and relevance to disease. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1124, 1–38 (2008)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  20. Grady, C. L., Springer, M. V., Hongwanishkul, D., McIntosh, A. R. & Winocur, G. Age-related changes in brain activity across the adult lifespan. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 18, 227–241 (2006)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Scheeringa, R. et al. Frontal theta EEG activity correlates negatively with the default mode network in resting state. Int. J. Psychophysiol. 67, 242–251 (2008)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Damoiseaux, J. S. et al. Reduced resting-state brain activity in the ‘default network’ in normal aging. Cereb. Cortex 18, 1856–1864 (2008)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Strobach, T., Frensch, P. A. & Schubert, T. Video game practice optimizes executive control skills in dual-task and task switching situations. Acta Psychol. (Amst.) 140, 13–24 (2012)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Boot, W. R., Kramer, A. F., Simons, D. J., Fabiani, M. & Gratton, G. The effects of video game playing on attention, memory, and executive control. Acta Psychol. (Amst.) 129, 387–398 (2008)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Dye, M. W., Green, C. S. & Bavelier, D. Increasing speed of processing with action video games. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 18, 321–326 (2009)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Berry, A. S. et al. The influence of perceptual training on working memory in older adults. PLoS ONE 5, e11537 (2010)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  27. Smith, G. E. et al. A cognitive training program based on principles of brain plasticity: results from the improvement in memory with plasticity-based adaptive cognitive training (IMPACT) study. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 57, 594–603 (2009)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Wolinsky, F. D., Vander Weg, M. W., Howren, M. B., Jones, M. & Dotson, M. M. A randomized controlled trial of cognitive training using a visual speed of processing intervention in middle aged and older adults. PLoS ONE 8, e61624 (2013)

    Article  CAS  ADS  Google Scholar 

  29. Ball, K. et al. Effects of cognitive training interventions with older adults: a randomized controlled trial. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 288, 2271–2281 (2002)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Owen, A. M. et al. Putting brain training to the test. Nature 465, 775–778 (2010)

    Article  CAS  ADS  Google Scholar 

  31. Macmillan, N. A. & Creelman, C. D. Detection Theory: A User's Guide. 2nd edn (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2005)

    Google Scholar 

  32. Knapp, T. R. & Schafer, W. D. From Gain Score t to ANCOVA F (and vice versa). Pract. Assess. Res. Eval. 14, 6 (2009)

    Google Scholar 

  33. Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J. & Perrig, W. J. Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 105, 6829–6833 (2008)

    Article  CAS  ADS  Google Scholar 

  34. Berry, A. S., Zanto, T. P., Rutman, A. M., Clapp, W. C. & Gazzaley, A. Practice-related improvement in working memory is modulated by changes in processing external interference. J. Neurophysiol. 102, 1779–1789 (2009)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Delorme, A. & Makeig, S. EEGLAB: an open source toolbox for analysis of single-trial EEG dynamics including independent component analysis. J. Neurosci. Methods 134, 9–21 (2004)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Makeig, S. Auditory event-related dynamics of the EEG spectrum and effects of exposure to tones. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 86, 283–293 (1993)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Neuper, C. & Klimesch, W. Event-Related Dynamics of Brain Oscillations. Vol. 159 (Elsevier Science, 2006)

    Google Scholar 

  38. Zanto, T. P., Toy, B. & Gazzaley, A. Delays in neural processing during working memory encoding in normal aging. Neuropsychologia 48, 13–25 (2010)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Gazzaley, A. et al. Age-related top-down suppression deficit in the early stages of cortical visual memory processing. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 105, 13122–13126 (2008)

    Article  CAS  ADS  Google Scholar 

  40. Bruns, A. Fourier-, Hilbert- and wavelet-based signal analysis: are they really different approaches? J. Neurosci. Methods 137, 321–332 (2004)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Berens, P. CircStat: A MATLAB Toolbox for Circular Statistics. J. Stat. Softw. 31, 1–21 (2009)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Cohen, J. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. 2nd edn (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1988)

    MATH  Google Scholar 

  43. Hedges, L. V. & Olkin, I. Statistical Methods For Meta-analysis. (Academic Press, 1985)

    MATH  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank J. Avila, N. Barbahiya, M. Gugel, B. Jensen, R. Moustafa, Y. Rezaeihaghighi, P. Sztybel, C. Vong, A. Wang, B. Yang and D. Yerukhimov for their help with data collection and analyses, and B. Benson for assistance with the NeuroRacer behavioral analysis stream. Thanks to D. Ellingson, N. Falstein, and M. Omernick for insights and support of NeuroRacer development. Thanks to J. Bollinger, J. Kalkstein, J. Mishra, B. Voytek and T. Zanto for support on ERSP and coherence analyses, and Z. Chadick, W. Clapp, J. Fung, M. Hough, E. Morsella, J. Pa, M. Rubens, P. Wais, C. Walsh, and D. Ziegler for helpful discussions. Thanks to all of our participants whose time and efforts made this work possible, and Apple who generously loaned the Gazzaley laboratory all of the MacBook Pro laptops used in this study. Support for this research was provided by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation's Pioneer Portfolio through a grant from its national program, ‘Health Games Research: Advancing Effectiveness of Interactive Games for Health’ (A.G.) and the National Institute of Aging (A.G.). J.A.A. was supported by a UCSF Institutional Research and Career Development Award (IRACDA).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, 94158, California, USA

    J. A. Anguera, J. Boccanfuso, J. L. Rintoul, O. Al-Hashimi, F. Faraji, J. Janowich, E. Kong, Y. Larraburo, C. Rolle, E. Johnston & A. Gazzaley

  2. Department of Physiology, University of California, San Francisco, 94158, California, USA

    J. A. Anguera, O. Al-Hashimi & A. Gazzaley

  3. Center for Integrative Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco, 94158, California, USA

    J. A. Anguera, J. Boccanfuso, J. L. Rintoul, O. Al-Hashimi, F. Faraji, J. Janowich, E. Kong, Y. Larraburo, C. Rolle & A. Gazzaley

  4. Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, 94158, California, USA

    A. Gazzaley

Authors
  1. J. A. Anguera
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. J. Boccanfuso
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. J. L. Rintoul
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. O. Al-Hashimi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. F. Faraji
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. J. Janowich
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. E. Kong
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Y. Larraburo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. C. Rolle
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. E. Johnston
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  11. A. Gazzaley
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

J.A.A., J.B., J.L.R., O.A., E.J. and A.G. designed the experiments; J.A.A., J.L.R., O.A., E.J. and A.G. developed the NeuroRacer software; J.A.A., J.B., O.A., F.F., E.K., Y.L. and C.R. collected the data; J.A.A., J.B., O.A., J.J. and C.R. analysed the data; and J.A.A. and A.G. wrote the paper. All authors discussed the results.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to J. A. Anguera or A. Gazzaley.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

A.G. is co-founder and chief science advisor of Akili Interactive Labs, a newly formed company that develops cognitive training software. A.G. has a patent pending for a game–based cognitive training intervention, ‘Enhancing cognition in the presence of distraction and/or interruption’, which was inspired by the research presented here.

Supplementary information

Supplementary Information

This file contains Supplementary Figures 1-18, Supplementary Tables 1-3, Supplementary Materials and Supplementary References. (PDF 3317 kb)

PowerPoint slides

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Anguera, J., Boccanfuso, J., Rintoul, J. et al. Video game training enhances cognitive control in older adults. Nature 501, 97–101 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12486

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12486

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

Nature Briefing: Translational Research

Sign up for the Nature Briefing: Translational Research newsletter — top stories in biotechnology, drug discovery and pharma.

Get what matters in translational research, free to your inbox weekly. Sign up for Nature Briefing: Translational Research