Abstract
Our objective was to provide a comprehensive review of the current knowledge regarding pregnancy and hepatitis B virus (HBV) or hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection as well as recent efforts to reduce the rate of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT). Maternal infection with either HBV or HCV has been linked to adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes, including MTCT. MTCT for HBV has been reduced to approximately 5% overall in countries including the US that have instituted postpartum neonatal HBV vaccination and immunoprophylaxis with hepatitis B immune globulin. However, the rate of transmission of HBV to newborns is nearly 30% when maternal HBV levels are greater than 200 000 IU ml−1 (>6 log10 copies ml−1). For these patients, new guidelines from the European Association for the Study of the Liver (EASL) and the Asian Pacific Association for the Study of the Liver (APASL) indicate that, in addition to neonatal vaccination and immunoprophylaxis, treating with antiviral agents such as tenofovir disoproxil fumarate or telbivudine during pregnancy beginning at 32 weeks of gestation is safe and effective in preventing MTCT. In contrast to HBV, no therapeutic agents are yet available or recommended to further decrease the risk of MTCT of HCV, which remains 3 to 10%. HCV MTCT can be minimized by avoiding fetal scalp electrodes and birth trauma whenever possible. Young women with HCV should be referred for treatment post delivery, and neonates should be closely followed to rule out infection. New, better-tolerated treatment regimens for HCV are now available, which should improve outcomes for all infected individuals.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution
Access options
Subscribe to this journal
Receive 12 print issues and online access
$259.00 per year
only $21.58 per issue
Buy this article
- Purchase on Springer Link
- Instant access to full article PDF
Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout
References
Sorrell MF, Belongia EA, Costa J, Gareen IF, Grem JL, Inadomi JM et al. National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference Statement: management of hepatitis B. Ann Intern Med 2009; 150 (2): 104–110.
Ott JJ, Stevens GA, Groeger J, Wiersma ST . Global epidemiology of hepatitis B virus infection: New estimates of age-specific HBsAg seroprevalence and endemicity. Vaccine 2012; 30 (12): 2212–2219.
Merrill RM, Hunter BD . Seroprevalence of markers for hepatitis B viral infection. Int J Infect Dis 2011; 15 (2): E78–E121.
Rustgi VK . The epidemiology of hepatitis C infection in the United States. J Gastroenterol 2007; 42 (7): 513–521.
Connell LE, Salihu HM, Salemi JL, August EM, Weldeselasse H, Mbah AK . Maternal hepatitis B and hepatitis C carrier status and perinatal outcomes. Liver Int 2011; 31 (8): 1163–1170.
Reddick KL, Jhaveri R, Gandhi M, James AH, Swamy GK . Pregnancy outcomes associated with viral hepatitis. J Viral Hepat 2011; 18 (7): e394–e398.
Berkley EM, Leslie KK, Arora S, Qualls C, Dunkelberg JC . Chronic hepatitis C in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 2008; 112 (2 Pt 1): 304–310.
Safir A, Levy A, Sikuler E, Sheiner E . Maternal hepatitis B virus or hepatitis C virus carrier status as an independent risk factor for adverse perinatal outcome. Liver Int 2010; 30 (5): 765–770.
Tse KY, Ho LF, Lao T . The impact of maternal HBsAg carrier status on pregnancy outcomes: a case-control study. J Hepatol 2005; 43 (5): 771–775.
Gambarin-Gelwan M . Hepatitis B in pregnancy. Clin Liver Dis 2007; 11 (4): 945–963 x.
Lao TT, Chan BC, Leung WC, Ho LF, Tse KY . Maternal hepatitis B infection and gestational diabetes mellitus. J Hepatol 2007; 47 (1): 46–50.
Pergam SA, Wang CC, Gardella CM, Sandison TG, Phipps WT, Hawes SE . Pregnancy complications associated with hepatitis C: data from a 2003-2005 Washington state birth cohort. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2008; 199 (1): 38 e31–e39.
Locatelli A, Roncaglia N, Arreghini A, Bellini P, Vergani P, Ghidini A . Hepatitis C virus infection is associated with a higher incidence of cholestasis of pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1999; 106 (5): 498–500.
Paternoster DM, Fabris F, Palu G, Santarossa C, Bracciante R, Snijders D et al. Intra-hepatic cholestasis of pregnancy in hepatitis C virus infection. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2002; 81 (2): 99–103.
Ludlow JP, Evans SF, Hulse G . Obstetric and perinatal outcomes in pregnancies associated with illicit substance abuse. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 2004; 44 (4): 302–306.
Euler GL, Wooten KG, Baughman AL, Williams WW . Hepatitis B surface antigen prevalence among pregnant women in urban areas: implications for testing, reporting, and preventing perinatal transmission. Pediatrics 2003; 111 (5 Part 2): 1192–1197.
Beasley RP, Trepo C, Stevens CE, Szmuness W . The e antigen and vertical transmission of hepatitis B surface antigen. Am J Epidemiol 1977; 105 (2): 94–98.
Okada K, Kamiyama I, Inomata M, Imai M, Miyakawa Y . e antigen and anti-e in the serum of asymptomatic carrier mothers as indicators of positive and negative transmission of hepatitis B virus to their infants. N Engl J Med 1976; 294 (14): 746–749.
Stevens CE, Neurath RA, Beasley RP, Szmuness W . HBeAg and anti-HBe detection by radioimmunoassay: correlation with vertical transmission of hepatitis B virus in Taiwan. J Med Virol 1979; 3 (3): 237–241.
Keeffe EB, Dieterich DT, Han SH, Jacobson IM, Martin P, Schiff ER et al. A treatment algorithm for the management of chronic hepatitis B virus infection in the United States: 2008 update. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2008; 6 (12): 1315–1341.
ACOG educational bulletin. Viral hepatitis in pregnancy. Number 248, July 1998 (replaces No. 174, November 1992). American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1998; 63 (2): 195–202.
del Canho R, Grosheide PM, Schalm SW, de Vries RR, Heijtink RA . Failure of neonatal hepatitis B vaccination: the role of HBV-DNA levels in hepatitis B carrier mothers and HLA antigens in neonates. J Hepatol 1994; 20 (4): 483–486.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Assessing completeness of perinatal hepatitis B virus infection reporting through comparison of immunization program and surveillance data–United States. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2011; 60 (13): 410–413.
Levy M, Koren G . Hepatitis B vaccine in pregnancy: maternal and fetal safety. Am J Perinatol 1991; 8 (3): 227–232.
Ornoy A, Tenenbaum A . Pregnancy outcome following infections by coxsackie, echo, measles, mumps, hepatitis, polio and encephalitis viruses. Reprod Toxicol 2006; 21 (4): 446–457.
Rawal BK, Parida S, Watkins RP, Ghosh P, Smith H . Symptomatic reactivation of hepatitis B in pregnancy. Lancet 1991; 337 (8737): 364.
Lin HH, Chen PJ, Chen DS, Sung JL, Yang KH, Young YC et al. Postpartum subsidence of hepatitis B viral replication in HBeAg-positive carrier mothers. J Med Virol 1989; 29 (1): 1–6.
Lin HH, Wu WY, Kao JH, Chen DS . Hepatitis B post-partum e antigen clearance in hepatitis B carrier mothers: Correlation with viral characteristics. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2006; 21 (3): 605–609.
ter Borg MJ, Leemans WF, de Man RA, Janssen HL . Exacerbation of chronic hepatitis B infection after delivery. J Viral Hepat 2008; 15 (1): 37–41.
Libbus MK, Phillips LM . Public health management of perinatal hepatitis B virus. Public Health Nurs 2009; 26 (4): 353–361.
Pan CQ, Duan ZP, Bhamidimarri KR, Zou HB, Liang XF, Li J et al. An algorithm for risk assessment and intervention of mother to child transmission of hepatitis B virus. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2012; 10 (5): 452–459.
van Zonneveld M, van Nunen AB, Niesters HG, de Man RA, Schalm SW, Janssen HL . Lamivudine treatment during pregnancy to prevent perinatal transmission of hepatitis B virus infection. J Viral Hepat 2003; 10 (4): 294–297.
Xu DZ, Yan YP, Choi BC, Xu JQ, Men K, Zhang JX et al. Risk factors and mechanism of transplacental transmission of hepatitis B virus: a case-control study. J Med Virol 2002; 67 (1): 20–26.
Xu WM, Cui YT, Wang L, Yang H, Liang ZQ, Li XM et al. Lamivudine in late pregnancy to prevent perinatal transmission of hepatitis B virus infection: a multicentre, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Viral Hepat 2009; 16 (2): 94–103.
Zou H, Chen Y, Duan Z, Zhang H, Pan C . Virologic factors associated with failure to passive-active immunoprophylaxis in infants born to HBsAg-positive mothers. J Viral Hepat 2012; 19 (2): e18–e25.
Alter MJ . Epidemiology of hepatitis B in Europe and worldwide. J Hepatol 2003; 39 (Suppl 1): S64–S69.
Wang JS, Chen H, Zhu QR . Transformation of hepatitis B serologic markers in babies born to hepatitis B surface antigen positive mothers. World J Gastroenterol 2005; 11 (23): 3582–3585.
Xu ZY, Duan SC, Margolis HS, Purcell RH, Ou-Yang PY, Coleman PJ et al. Long-term efficacy of active postexposure immunization of infants for prevention of hepatitis B virus infection. United States-People's Republic of China Study Group on Hepatitis B. J Infect Dis 1995; 171 (1): 54–60.
Krugman S . Hepatitis B virus and the neonate. Ann NY Acad Sci 1988; 549: 129–134.
Beasley RP, Hwang LY, Stevens CE, Lin CC, Hsieh FJ, Wang KY et al. Efficacy of hepatitis B immune globulin for prevention of perinatal transmission of the hepatitis B virus carrier state: final report of a randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Hepatology 1983; 3 (2): 135–141.
Schalm SW, Mazel JA, de Gast GC, Heijtink RA, Botman MJ, Banffer JR et al. Prevention of hepatitis B infection in newborns through mass screening and delayed vaccination of all infants of mothers with hepatitis B surface antigen. Pediatrics 1989; 83 (6): 1041–1048.
Stevens CE, Toy PT, Tong MJ, Taylor PE, Vyas GN, Nair PV et al. Perinatal hepatitis B virus transmission in the United States. Prevention by passive-active immunization. JAMA 1985; 253 (12): 1740–1745.
Lin HH, Lee TY, Chen DS, Sung JL, Ohto H, Etoh T et al. Transplacental leakage of HBeAg-positive maternal blood as the most likely route in causing intrauterine infection with hepatitis B virus. J Pediatr 1987; 111 (6 Pt 1): 877–881.
Ohto H, Lin HH, Kawana T, Etoh T, Tohyama H . Intrauterine transmission of hepatitis B virus is closely related to placental leakage. J Med Virol 1987; 21 (1): 1–6.
Ko TM, Tseng LH, Chang MH, Chen DS, Hsieh FJ, Chuang SM et al. Amniocentesis in mothers who are hepatitis B virus carriers does not expose the infant to an increased risk of hepatitis B virus infection. Arch Gynecol Obstet 1994; 255 (1): 25–30.
Wang J, Zhu Q, Zhang X . Effect of delivery mode on maternal-infant transmission of hepatitis B virus by immunoprophylaxis. Chin Med J (Engl) 2002; 115 (10): 1510–1512.
Andre FE, Zuckerman AJ . Review: protective efficacy of hepatitis B vaccines in neonates. J Med Virol 1994; 44 (2): 144–151.
Stevens CE, Taylor PE, Tong MJ, Toy PT, Vyas GN, Nair PV et al. Yeast-recombinant hepatitis B vaccine. Efficacy with hepatitis B immune globulin in prevention of perinatal hepatitis B virus transmission. JAMA 1987; 257 (19): 2612–2616.
Noto H, Terao T, Ryou S, Hirose Y, Yoshida T, Ookubo H et al. Combined passive and active immunoprophylaxis for preventing perinatal transmission of the hepatitis B virus carrier state in Shizuoka, Japan during 1980-1994. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2003; 18 (8): 943–949.
Soleimani Amiri MJ, Hasanjani Roushan MR, Baiany M, Taheri H, Hasanjani Roushan M . Outcomes of passive-active immunoprophylaxis given to infants of mothers infected with hepatitis B virus in Babol, Iran. J Clin Virol 2010; 49 (4): 283–285.
Ip HM, Lelie PN, Wong VC, Kuhns MC, Reesink HW . Prevention of hepatitis B virus carrier state in infants according to maternal serum levels of HBV DNA. Lancet 1989; 1 (8635): 406–410.
Lai CL, Chien RN, Leung NW, Chang TT, Guan R, Tai DI et al. A one-year trial of lamivudine for chronic hepatitis B. Asia Hepatitis Lamivudine Study Group. N Engl J Med 1998; 339 (2): 61–68.
Han GR, Cao MK, Zhao W, Jiang HX, Wang CM, Bai SF et al. A prospective and open-label study for the efficacy and safety of telbivudine in pregnancy for the prevention of perinatal transmission of hepatitis B virus infection. J Hepatol 2011; 55 (6): 1215–1221.
Shi Z, Yang Y, Ma L, Li X, Schreiber A . Lamivudine in late pregnancy to interrupt in utero transmission of hepatitis B virus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol 2010; 116 (1): 147–159.
Su GG, Pan KH, Zhao NF, Fang SH, Yang DH, Zhou Y . Efficacy and safety of lamivudine treatment for chronic hepatitis B in pregnancy. World J Gastroenterol 2004; 10 (6): 910–912.
Han L, Zhang HW, Xie JX, Zhang Q, Wang HY, Cao GW . A meta-analysis of lamivudine for interruption of mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis B virus. World J Gastroenterol 2011; 17 (38): 4321–4333.
Peters MG . Special populations with hepatitis B virus infection. Hepatology 2009; 49 (5 Suppl): S146–S155.
European Association For The Study Of The Liver. EASL clinical practice guidelines: Management of chronic hepatitis B virus infection. J Hepatol 2012; 57 (1): 167–185.
Pan CQ, Han GR, Jiang HX, Zhao W, Cao MK, Wang CM et al. Telbivudine prevents vertical transmission from HBeAg-positive women with chronic hepatitis B. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2012; 10 (5): 520–526.
Fontana RJ . Side effects of long-term oral antiviral therapy for hepatitis B. Hepatology 2009; 49 (5 Suppl): S185–S195.
Benaboud S, Pruvost A, Coffie PA, Ekouevi DK, Urien S, Arrive E et al. Concentrations of tenofovir and emtricitabine in breast milk of HIV-1-infected women in Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire, in the ANRS 12109 TEmAA Study, Step 2. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2011; 55 (3): 1315–1317.
Pan CQ, Mi LJ, Bunchorntavakul C, Karsdon J, Huang WM, Singhvi G et al. Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate for prevention of vertical transmission of hepatitis B virus infection by highly viremic pregnant women: a case series. Dig Dis Sci 2012; 57 (9): 2423–2429.
Liaw YF, Kao JH, Piratvisuth T, Chan HLY, Chien RN, Liu CJ et al. Asian-Pacific consensus statement on the management of chronic hepatitis B: a 2012 update. Hepatol Int 2012; 6 (3): 531–561.
Yang J, Zeng XM, Men YL, Zhao LS . Elective caesarean section versus vaginal delivery for preventing mother to child transmission of hepatitis B virus–a systematic review. Virol J 2008; 5: 100.
Pan CQ, Zou HB, Chen Y, Zhang XH, Zhang H, Li J et al. Cesarean section reduces perinatal transmission of hepatitis B virus infection from hepatitis B surface antigen-positive women to their infants. Clini Gastroenterol Hepatol 2013; 11 (10): 1349–1355.
Wong VC, Lee AK, Ip HM . Transmission of hepatitis B antigens from symptom free carrier mothers to the fetus and the infant. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1980; 87 (11): 958–965.
Beasley RP, Stevens CE, Shiao IS, Meng HC . Evidence against breast-feeding as a mechanism for vertical transmission of hepatitis B. Lancet 1975; 2 (7938): 740–741.
Gartner LM, Morton J, Lawrence RA, Naylor AJ, O'Hare D, Schanler RJ et al. Breastfeeding and the use of human milk. Pediatrics 2005; 115 (2): 496–506.
Alter MJ . Epidemiology of hepatitis C. Hepatology 1997; 26 (3 Suppl 1): 62S–65S.
Alter MJ, Kruszon-Moran D, Nainan OV, McQuillan GM, Gao F, Moyer LA et al. The prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in the United States, 1988 through 1994. N Engl J Med 1999; 341 (8): 556–562.
Yeung LT, King SM, Roberts EA . Mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus. Hepatology 2001; 34 (2): 223–229.
Jonas MM . Hepatitis C infection in children. N Engl J Med 1999; 341 (12): 912–913.
Zanetti AR, Tanzi E, Newell ML . Mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus. J Hepatol 1999; 31 (Suppl 1): 96–100.
National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference Statement: Management of hepatitis C: 2002–June 10–12, 2002. Hepatology 2002; 36 (5 Suppl 1): S3–20.
Roberts EA, Yeung L . Maternal-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus infection. Hepatology 2002; 36 (5 Suppl 1): S106–S113.
Conte D, Fraquelli M, Prati D, Colucci A, Minola E . Prevalence and clinical course of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and rate of HCV vertical transmission in a cohort of 15,250 pregnant women. Hepatology 2000; 31 (3): 751–755.
Gervais A, Bacq Y, Bernuau J, Martinot M, Auperin A, Boyer N et al. Decrease in serum ALT and increase in serum HCV RNA during pregnancy in women with chronic hepatitis C. J Hepatol 2000; 32 (2): 293–299.
Wegmann TG, Lin H, Guilbert L, Mosmann TR . Bidirectional cytokine interactions in the maternal-fetal relationship: is successful pregnancy a TH2 phenomenon? Immunol Today 1993; 14 (7): 353–356.
Lee RH, Goodwin TM, Greenspoon J, Incerpi M . The prevalence of intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy in a primarily Latina Los Angeles population. J Perinatol 2006; 26 (9): 527–532.
Ohto H, Terazawa S, Sasaki N, Hino K, Ishiwata C, Kako M et al. Transmission of hepatitis C virus from mothers to infants. The Vertical Transmission of Hepatitis C Virus Collaborative Study Group. N Engl J Med 1994; 330 (11): 744–750.
Ferrero S, Lungaro P, Bruzzone BM, Gotta C, Bentivoglio G, Ragni N . Prospective study of mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus: a 10-year survey (1990-2000). Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2003; 82 (3): 229–234.
Ruiz-Extremera A, Munoz-Gamez JA, Salmeron-Ruiz MA, de Rueda PM, Quiles-Perez R, Gila-Medina A et al. Genetic variation in interleukin 28B with respect to vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus and spontaneous clearance in HCV-infected children. Hepatology 2011; 53 (6): 1830–1838.
Bortolotti F, Verucchi G, Camma C, Cabibbo G, Zancan L, Indolfi G et al. Long-term course of chronic hepatitis C in children: from viral clearance to end-stage liver disease. Gastroenterology 2008; 134 (7): 1900–1907.
Thomas DL, Thio CL, Martin MP, Qi Y, Ge D, O'Huigin C et al. Genetic variation in IL28B and spontaneous clearance of hepatitis C virus. Nature 2009; 461 (7265): 798–801.
Thomas DL, Villano SA, Riester KA, Hershow R, Mofenson LM, Landesman SH et al. Perinatal transmission of hepatitis C virus from human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected mothers. Women and Infants Transmission Study. J Infect Dis 1998; 177 (6): 1480–1488.
Thaler MM, Park CK, Landers DV, Wara DW, Houghton M, Veereman-Wauters G et al. Vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus. Lancet 1991; 338 (8758): 17–18.
Zanetti AR, Tanzi E, Paccagnini S, Principi N, Pizzocolo G, Caccamo ML et al. Mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus. Lombardy Study Group on Vertical HCV Transmission. Lancet 1995; 345 (8945): 289–291.
Mast EE, Hwang LY, Seto DS, Nolte FS, Nainan OV, Wurtzel H et al. Risk factors for perinatal transmission of hepatitis C virus (HCV) and the natural history of HCV infection acquired in infancy. J Infect Dis 2005; 192 (11): 1880–1889.
Steininger C, Kundi M, Jatzko G, Kiss H, Lischka A, Holzmann H . Increased risk of mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus by intrapartum infantile exposure to maternal blood. J Infect Dis 2003; 187 (3): 345–351.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Recommendations for prevention and control of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and HCV-related chronic disease. MMWR Recomm Rep 1998; 47 (RR-19): 1–39.
European Paediatric Hepatitis C Virus Network. Effects of mode of delivery and infant feeding on the risk of mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis C virus. European Paediatric Hepatitis C Virus Network. BJOG 2001; 108 (4): 371–377.
McIntyre PG, Tosh K, McGuire W . Caesarean section versus vaginal delivery for preventing mother to infant hepatitis C virus transmission. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006; (4): CD005546.
Gibb DM, Goodall RL, Dunn DT, Healy M, Neave P, Cafferkey M et al. Mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis C virus: evidence for preventable peripartum transmission. Lancet 2000; 356 (9233): 904–907.
Ghamar Chehreh ME, Tabatabaei SV, Khazanehdari S, Alavian SM . Effect of cesarean section on the risk of perinatal transmission of hepatitis C virus from HCV-RNA+/HIV- mothers: a meta-analysis. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2011; 283 (2): 255–260.
Polywka S, Schroter M, Feucht HH, Zollner B, Laufs R . Low risk of vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus by breast milk. Clin Infect Dis 1999; 29 (5): 1327–1329.
Kumar RM, Shahul S . Role of breast-feeding in transmission of hepatitis C virus to infants of HCV-infected mothers. J Hepatol 1998; 29 (2): 191–197.
Resti M, Azzari C, Mannelli F, Moriondo M, Novembre E, de Martino M et al. Mother to child transmission of hepatitis C virus: prospective study of risk factors and timing of infection in children born to women seronegative for HIV-1. Tuscany Study Group on Hepatitis C Virus Infection. BMJ 1998; 317 (7156): 437–441.
Thomas SL, Newell ML, Peckham CS, Ades AE, Hall AJ . A review of hepatitis C virus (HCV) vertical transmission: risks of transmission to infants born to mothers with and without HCV viraemia or human immunodeficiency virus infection. Int J Epidemiol 1998; 27 (1): 108–117.
ACOG committee opinion. Breastfeeding and the risk of hepatitis C virus transmission. Number 220, August 1999. Committee on Obstetric Practice. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1999; 66 (3): 307–308.
Lawitz E, Mangia A, Wyles D, Rodriguez-Torres M, Hassanein T, Gordon SC et al. Sofosbuvir for previously untreated chronic hepatitis C infection. N Engl J Med 2013; 368 (20): 1878–1887.
Jesudian AB, de Jong YP, Jacobson IM . Emerging therapeutic targets for hepatitis C virus infection. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2013; 11 (6): 612–619, e611.
Schmidt WN, Nelson DR, Pawlotsky JM, Sherman KE, Thomas DL, Chung RT . Direct-acting antiviral agents and the path to interferon independence. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2013; 12 (5): 728–737.
Sulkowski MS, Gardiner DF, Rodriguez-Torres M, Reddy KR, Hassanein T, Jacobson I et al. Daclatasvir plus sofosbuvir for previously treated or untreated chronic HCV infection. N Engl J Med 2014; 370 (3): 211–221.
Kowdley KV, Lawitz E, Poordad F, Cohen DE, Nelson DR, Zeuzem S et al. Phase 2b trial of interferon-free therapy for hepatitis C virus genotype 1. N Engl J Med 2014; 370 (3): 222–232.
Schmidt WN, Nelson DR, Pawlotsky JM, Sherman KE, Thomas DL, Chung RT . Direct-acting antiviral agents and the path to interferon independence. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2014; 12 (5): 728–737.
Sulkowski MS . Daclatasvir plus Sofosbuvir for Previously Treated or Untreated Chronic HCV Infection. New Engl J Med 2014; 370 (15): 1469–1469.
Poland GA, Jacobson RM . Clinical practice: prevention of hepatitis B with the hepatitis B vaccine. N Engl J Med 2004; 351 (27): 2832–2838.
Acknowledgements
This work was partially supported the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research Development and Faculty Development Funds at the University of Iowa.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
Kimberly K. Leslie and Kristina W. Thiel are cofounders of Immortagen, L.L.C. The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Dunkelberg, J., Berkley, E., Thiel, K. et al. Hepatitis B and C in pregnancy: a review and recommendations for care. J Perinatol 34, 882–891 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/jp.2014.167
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/jp.2014.167
This article is cited by
-
Repurposing of drug molecules from FDA database against Hepatitis C virus E2 protein using ensemble docking approach
Molecular Diversity (2023)
-
The effects of increased dose of hepatitis B vaccine on mother-to-child transmission and immune response for infants born to mothers with chronic hepatitis B infection: a prospective, multicenter, large-sample cohort study
BMC Medicine (2021)
-
Viral hepatitis and pregnancy
Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology (2021)
-
Components of antenatal care received by women in fishing communities on Lake Victoria, Uganda; a cross sectional survey
BMC Health Services Research (2020)
-
Gender development and hepatitis B and C infections among pregnant women in Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Infectious Diseases of Poverty (2019)