Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Timeline
  • Published:

Tobacco and the global lung cancer epidemic

Nature Reviews Cancer volume 1, pages 82–86 (2001)Cite this article

Abstract

Tobacco is the world's single most avoidable cause of death. The World Health Organization has calculated that the 5.6 trillion cigarettes smoked per year at the close of the twentieth century will cause nearly 10 million fatalities per year by 2030. Lung cancer is the most common tobacco-related cause of cancer mortality, with one case being produced for every 3 million cigarettes smoked. How was the global lung cancer epidemic recognized, and what can we expect in the future?

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on SpringerLink
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1: The oldest existing illustration of a smoker — a Mayan god.
Figure 2: The Bonsack cigarette-making machine.
Figure 3: Global cigarette consumption (a) and lung cancer mortality (b), 1900–2030.

References

  1. Bejach, E. Die tabakgegnerische Bewegung in Deutschland mit Berücksichtigung der ausserdeutschen Tabakgegnerbewegungen 3–4 Thesis, University of Berlin (1927).

    Google Scholar 

  2. Kluger, R. Ashes to Ashes: America's Hundred–Year Cigarette War, the Public Health, and the Unabashed Triumph of Philip Morris 13 (Knopf, New York, 1996).

    Google Scholar 

  3. Swoger, K. Report says smoking has benefits. Prague Post Online (June 27, 2001).

  4. Hill, J. Cautions Against the Immoderate Use of Snuff 27–38 (Baldwin & Jackson, London, 1761).

    Google Scholar 

  5. Soemmerring, S. T. De Morbis Vasorum Absorbentium Corporis Humani 109 (Varrentrapp and Wenner, Frankfurt, 1795).

    Google Scholar 

  6. Proctor, R. N. Cancer Wars: How Politics Shapes What We Know and Don't Know About Cancer (Basic Books, New York, 1995).

    Google Scholar 

  7. Bouisson, E.-F. Tribut à la Chirurgie 1259–1303 (Baillière, Paris, 1858).

    Google Scholar 

  8. Virchow, R. L. Die Krankhaften Geschwülste (Hirschwald, Berlin, 1863–1867).

  9. Tiedemann, F. Geschichte des Tabaks 371 (Brönner, Frankfurt, 1854).

    Google Scholar 

  10. Kaminsky, M. Ein Primäres Lungencarcinom mit Verhornten Plattenepithelien. Thesis, University of Greifswald (1898).

    Google Scholar 

  11. Adler, I. Primary Malignant Growths of the Lungs and Bronchi 14 (Longmans, Green and Co., London, 1912).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  12. Proctor, R. N. The Nazi war on tobacco: ideology, evidence, and possible cancer consequences. Bull. Hist. Med. 71, 435–488 (1997).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Rottmann, H. Über Primäre Lungencarcinome 29, 52 Thesis, University of Würzberg (1898).

    Google Scholar 

  14. Lickint, F. Tabak und Tabakrauch als ätiologischer Factor des Carcinoms. Zeitschr. Krebsforsch. 30, 349–365 (1929).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Schairer, E. & Schöniger, E. Lungenkrebs und Tabakverbrauch. Zeitschr. Krebsforsch. 54, 261–269 (1943).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Davey Smith, G., Ströbele, S. A., Egger, M. Smoking and health promotion in Nazi Germany. J. Epidemiol. Comm. Health 48, 220–223 (1994).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Syrek, A. Zur Häufigkeitszunahme des Lungenkrebses. Zeitschr. Krebsforsch. 36, 409–415 (1932).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Ostertag, B. Krebsbekämpfung–Krebsbehandlung. Medizinische Klinik 38, 278–281 (1942).

    Google Scholar 

  19. Doll, R. Lung cancer and tobacco consumption. Int. J. Epidemiol. 30, 30–31 (2001).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Wynder, E. L. & Graham, E. A. Tobacco smoking as a possible etiologic factor in bronchiogenic carcinoma. JAMA 143, 329–336 (1950).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Doll, R. & Hill, A. B. Smoking and carcinoma of the lung. Preliminary report. Br. Med. J. 2, 739–748 (1950).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Schrek, R., Baker, L. A., Ballard, G. P. & Dolgoff, S. Tobacco smoking as an etiologic factor of disease. Cancer Res. 10, 49–58 (1950).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Levin, M. L., Goldstein, H. & Gerhardt, P. R. Cancer and tobacco smoking. A preliminary report. JAMA 143, 336–338 (1950).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Mills, C. A. & Porter, M. M. Tobacco smoking habits and cancer of the mouth and respiratory system. Cancer Res. 10, 539–542 (1950).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Wynder, E. L., Graham, E. A. & Croninger, A. B. Experimental production of carcinoma with cigarette tar. Cancer Res. 13, 855–864 (1953).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Hammond, E. C. & Horn, D. Smoking and death rates: report on forty-four months of follow-up of 187,783 men. JAMA 166, 1159–1172 (1958).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Doll, R. & Hill, A. B. Lung cancer and other causes of death in relation to smoking. Br. Med. J. 2, 1071–1081 (1956).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Doll, R., Peto, R., Wheatley, K., Gray, R. & Sutherland, I. Mortality in relation to smoking: 40 years' observations on male British doctors. Br. Med. J. 309, 901–911 (1994).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Medical Research Council. Tobacco, smoking and cancer of the lung. Br. Med. J. 1, 1523–1524 (1957).

  30. Royal College of Physicians of London. Smoking and Health (Pitman Medical, London, 1962).

  31. USPHS. Smoking and Health: Report of the Advisory Committee to the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service 31 (US Government Printing Office, Washington DC, 1964).

  32. Philip Morris Company. Annual Report, 1997.

  33. Glantz, S., et al. The Cigarette Papers (Univ. California Press, Berkeley, 1996).

    Google Scholar 

  34. Auerbach, O., Hammond, E. D., Kirmian, D. & Garfinkel, L. Effects of cigarette smoking on dogs II. Pulmonary neoplasms. Arch. Environ. Health 21, 754–768 (1970).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Doll, R. & Peto, R. The Causes of Cancer 1220 (Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, 1981).

    Google Scholar 

  36. Hirayama, T. Nonsmoking wives of heavy smokers have a higher risk of lung cancer: a study from Japan. Br. Med. J. 282, 183–185 (1981).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Denissenko, M. F., et al. Preferential formation of benzo[a]pyrene adduct at lung cancer mutation hotspots in p53. Science 274, 430–432 (1996).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Peto, R. & Lopez, A. Mortality from Smoking in Developed Countries, 1950–2000 (Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, 1994).

    Google Scholar 

  39. World Health Organization. Tobacco or Health: A Global Status Report (World Health Organization, Geneva, 1999).

  40. 'World Kicking Cigarette Habit'. Worldwatch Issue Alert, May 9, 2000

  41. World Health Organization. The Tobacco Epidemic: A Crisis of Startling Dimensions (World Health Organization, Geneva, 1998).

  42. Ferlay, J., Bray, F., Pisani, P., & Parkin, D. M. GLOBOCAN 2000: Cancer Incidence, Mortality and Prevalence Worldwide Version 1.0. IARC CancerBase No. 5 (IARC Press, Lyon, 2001).

    Google Scholar 

  43. Liu, B.-Q., et al. Emerging tobacco hazards in China: 1. Retrospective proportional mortality study of one million deaths. Br. Med. J. 317, 1411–1422 (1998).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures 2000 11 (American Cancer Society, Atlanta, Georgia, 2000).

  45. Proctor, R. The Nazi War on Cancer 246 (Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, 1999).

    Google Scholar 

  46. Lee. P. N. Tobacco Consumption in Various Countries (London, Tobacco Research Council, 1975).

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. the Department of History, Pennsylvania State University, Weaver Building, University Park, 16802, Pennsylvania, USA

    Robert N. Proctor

Authors
  1. Robert N. Proctor
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Related links

Related links

FURTHER INFORMATION

Action on Smoking and Health (ASH)

American Cancer Society

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Tobacco Control Archives from the UCSF Library

Tobacco Timeline

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Proctor, R. Tobacco and the global lung cancer epidemic. Nat Rev Cancer 1, 82–86 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1038/35094091

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/35094091

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing