Nature Reviews Neuroscience http://www.nature.com/nrn/current_issue/ Nature Publishing Group en © 2009 Nature Publishing Group Nature Reviews Neuroscience 1471-003X © 2009 Nature Publishing Group permissions@nature.com Nature Reviews Neuroscience http://www.nature.com/includes/rj_globnavimages/nrn_logo.gif http://www.nature.com/nrn/ From the editors http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2677 How the nervous system coordinates motor behaviours and how different neurological diseases affect this process are long-standing areas of neuroscience research. However, modern approaches continue to provide new insights into these fundamental questions, as illustrated by two articles in this month's issueOn page 507 From the editors

Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 467 (2009). doi:10.1038/nrn2677

How the nervous system coordinates motor behaviours and how different neurological diseases affect this process are long-standing areas of neuroscience research. However, modern approaches continue to provide new insights into these fundamental questions, as illustrated by two articles in this month's issueOn page 507

]]> From the editors doi:10.1038/nrn2677 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 467 (2009) Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10.1038/nrn2677 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2677 10 7 From The Editors 467 467 Cerebellum: An olive branch to two theories http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2674 The cerebellum is thought to regulate motor learning, coordination and timing, but how its complex circuitry achieves these functions has been a continuous topic of investigation. Now, Mathy et al. show that climbing fibres can fire bursts of action potentials that both encode subthreshold Cerebellum: An olive branch to two theories

Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 468 (2009). doi:10.1038/nrn2674

Author: Leonie Welberg

The cerebellum is thought to regulate motor learning, coordination and timing, but how its complex circuitry achieves these functions has been a continuous topic of investigation. Now, Mathy et al. show that climbing fibres can fire bursts of action potentials that both encode subthreshold

]]> Cerebellum: An olive branch to two theories Leonie Welberg doi:10.1038/nrn2674 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 468 (2009) Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10.1038/nrn2674 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2674 10 7 Research Highlight 468 468 MicroRNA: MicroRNAs have receptor subunits in a bind http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2671 The number of glutamate receptors (GluRs) in the postsynaptic membrane is crucial to the efficacy of synaptic transmission, but the mechanisms that control receptor synthesis and localization are not well understood. Karr et al. have now shown that microRNAs regulate the expression levels of MicroRNA: MicroRNAs have receptor subunits in a bind

Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 469 (2009). doi:10.1038/nrn2671

Author: Eleanor Beal

The number of glutamate receptors (GluRs) in the postsynaptic membrane is crucial to the efficacy of synaptic transmission, but the mechanisms that control receptor synthesis and localization are not well understood. Karr et al. have now shown that microRNAs regulate the expression levels of

]]> MicroRNA: MicroRNAs have receptor subunits in a bind Eleanor Beal doi:10.1038/nrn2671 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 469 (2009) 2009-06-10 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2009-06-10 10.1038/nrn2671 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2671 10 7 Research Highlight 469 469 Development: Terminal differentiation http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2678 The identity of a neuron is determined by the so-called terminal differentiation genes (TDGs), which are activated by specific transcription factors. It is largely unknown how the TDGs are selected during developmental processes. Bertrand and Hobert now show how specific cues are integrated into the Development: Terminal differentiation

Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 469 (2009). doi:10.1038/nrn2678

Author: Claudia Wiedemann

The identity of a neuron is determined by the so-called terminal differentiation genes (TDGs), which are activated by specific transcription factors. It is largely unknown how the TDGs are selected during developmental processes. Bertrand and Hobert now show how specific cues are integrated into the

]]> Development: Terminal differentiation Claudia Wiedemann doi:10.1038/nrn2678 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 469 (2009) Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10.1038/nrn2678 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2678 10 7 Research Highlight 469 469 In Brief http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2679 Neuronal circuits In Brief

Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 470 (2009). doi:10.1038/nrn2679

Neuronal circuits

]]> In Brief doi:10.1038/nrn2679 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 470 (2009) Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10.1038/nrn2679 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2679 10 7 Research Highlight 470 470 Synaptic plasticity: The advantages of youth http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2664 The introduction of newborn granule cells to the circuitry of the olfactory bulb (OB) has been proposed to have a role in olfactory learning and memory. However, the nature of this contribution was unclear. In Nature Neuroscience, Lledo and colleagues report that newborn granule Synaptic plasticity: The advantages of youth

Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 470 (2009). doi:10.1038/nrn2664

Author: Katherine Whalley

The introduction of newborn granule cells to the circuitry of the olfactory bulb (OB) has been proposed to have a role in olfactory learning and memory. However, the nature of this contribution was unclear. In Nature Neuroscience, Lledo and colleagues report that newborn granule

]]> Synaptic plasticity: The advantages of youth Katherine Whalley doi:10.1038/nrn2664 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 470 (2009) 2009-05-20 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2009-05-20 10.1038/nrn2664 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2664 10 7 Research Highlight 470 471 Sleep: What goes up, must come down http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2676 The exact functions of sleep are unknown, but it is widely accepted that sleep is important for learning and memory. Two recent studies published in Science found that synaptic connections and synaptic protein markers that respectively increase their numbers and expression levels during wakefulness Sleep: What goes up, must come down

Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 470 (2009). doi:10.1038/nrn2676

Author: Claudia Wiedemann

The exact functions of sleep are unknown, but it is widely accepted that sleep is important for learning and memory. Two recent studies published in Science found that synaptic connections and synaptic protein markers that respectively increase their numbers and expression levels during wakefulness

]]> Sleep: What goes up, must come down Claudia Wiedemann doi:10.1038/nrn2676 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 470 (2009) Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10.1038/nrn2676 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2676 10 7 Research Highlight 470 471 Learning and memory: HDAC2 is the one http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2660 Inhibitors of histone deacetylase (HDAC) enzymes have been shown to improve learning and memory; however, multiple forms of HDAC exist, and the development of more effective HDAC inhibitors would benefit from knowing the specific HDAC(s) that are involved in the regulation of synaptic plasticity. Tsai Learning and memory: HDAC2 is the one

Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 471 (2009). doi:10.1038/nrn2660

Author: Leonie Welberg

Inhibitors of histone deacetylase (HDAC) enzymes have been shown to improve learning and memory; however, multiple forms of HDAC exist, and the development of more effective HDAC inhibitors would benefit from knowing the specific HDAC(s) that are involved in the regulation of synaptic plasticity. Tsai

]]> Learning and memory: HDAC2 is the one Leonie Welberg doi:10.1038/nrn2660 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 471 (2009) 2009-05-20 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2009-05-20 10.1038/nrn2660 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2660 10 7 Research Highlight 471 471 Spine formation: Signalling growth http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2673 Dysfunction of γ-secretase has been linked to early-onset Alzheimer's disease; however, the underlying molecular mechanisms are unknown. Inoue et al. have now shown that γ-secretase is localized to synaptic membranes, where it cleaves ephrin receptor A4 (EPHA4) on synaptic activation and triggers the Spine formation: Signalling growth

Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 472 (2009). doi:10.1038/nrn2673

Author: Claudia Wiedemann

Dysfunction of γ-secretase has been linked to early-onset Alzheimer's disease; however, the underlying molecular mechanisms are unknown. Inoue et al. have now shown that γ-secretase is localized to synaptic membranes, where it cleaves ephrin receptor A4 (EPHA4) on synaptic activation and triggers the

]]> Spine formation: Signalling growth Claudia Wiedemann doi:10.1038/nrn2673 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 472 (2009) 2009-06-10 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2009-06-10 10.1038/nrn2673 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2673 10 7 Research Highlight 472 472 Neuronal metabolism: A question of balance http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2669 The rate of glycolysis, the cell's energy-generating metabolic process, is lower in neurons than in astrocytes; however, why this is so is unknown. Herrero-Mendez et al. have now shown that, by actively downregulating glycolysis, neurons shift their metabolic balance towards pathways responsible for maintaining Neuronal metabolism: A question of balance

Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 472 (2009). doi:10.1038/nrn2669

Author: Katherine Whalley

The rate of glycolysis, the cell's energy-generating metabolic process, is lower in neurons than in astrocytes; however, why this is so is unknown. Herrero-Mendez et al. have now shown that, by actively downregulating glycolysis, neurons shift their metabolic balance towards pathways responsible for maintaining

]]> Neuronal metabolism: A question of balance Katherine Whalley doi:10.1038/nrn2669 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 472 (2009) 2009-06-10 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2009-06-10 10.1038/nrn2669 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2669 10 7 Research Highlight 472 473 Addiction: Let me count the genes http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2675 Addictive drugs alter gene expression in the brain's reward system, notably in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). To investigate the underlying mechanisms, Renthal et al. carried out a genome-wide analysis of chronic cocaine-induced chromatin modifications and transcription-factor binding, revealing a role for sirtuins 1 and Addiction: Let me count the genes

Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 472 (2009). doi:10.1038/nrn2675

Author: Leonie Welberg

Addictive drugs alter gene expression in the brain's reward system, notably in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). To investigate the underlying mechanisms, Renthal et al. carried out a genome-wide analysis of chronic cocaine-induced chromatin modifications and transcription-factor binding, revealing a role for sirtuins 1 and

]]> Addiction: Let me count the genes Leonie Welberg doi:10.1038/nrn2675 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 472 (2009) Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10.1038/nrn2675 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2675 10 7 Research Highlight 472 473 In Brief http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2680 Reward In Brief

Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 473 (2009). doi:10.1038/nrn2680

Reward

]]> In Brief doi:10.1038/nrn2680 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 473 (2009) Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10.1038/nrn2680 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2680 10 7 Research Highlight 473 473 New sites of action for GIRK and SK channels http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2668 It was recently discovered that two different types of voltage-insensitive K+ channels, G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying K+ (GIRK) and small-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (SK) channels, are located on dendritic branches, spines and shafts in the postsynaptic densities of New sites of action for GIRK and SK channels

Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 475 (2009). doi:10.1038/nrn2668

Authors: Rafael Luján, James Maylie & John P. Adelman

It was recently discovered that two different types of voltage-insensitive K+ channels, G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying K+ (GIRK) and small-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (SK) channels, are located on dendritic branches, spines and shafts in the postsynaptic densities of

]]> New sites of action for GIRK and SK channels Rafael Luján James Maylie John P. Adelman doi:10.1038/nrn2668 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 475 (2009) Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10.1038/nrn2668 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2668 10 7 Progress 475 480 Mitochondrial membrane permeabilization in neuronal injury http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2665 Acute neurological conditions such as cerebrovascular diseases and trauma are associated with irreversible loss of neurons and glial cells. Severe or prolonged injury results in uncontrollable cell death within the core of lesions. Conversely, cells that are less severely damaged succumb in a relatively slow Mitochondrial membrane permeabilization in neuronal injury

Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 481 (2009). doi:10.1038/nrn2665

Authors: Lorenzo Galluzzi, Klas Blomgren & Guido Kroemer

Acute neurological conditions such as cerebrovascular diseases and trauma are associated with irreversible loss of neurons and glial cells. Severe or prolonged injury results in uncontrollable cell death within the core of lesions. Conversely, cells that are less severely damaged succumb in a relatively slow

]]> Mitochondrial membrane permeabilization in neuronal injury Lorenzo Galluzzi Klas Blomgren Guido Kroemer doi:10.1038/nrn2665 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 481 (2009) Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10.1038/nrn2665 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2665 10 7 Review 481 494 The diverse functional roles and regulation of neuronal gap junctions in the retina http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2636 Electrical synaptic transmission through gap junctions underlies direct and rapid neuronal communication in the CNS. The diversity of functional roles that electrical synapses have is perhaps best exemplified in the vertebrate retina, in which gap junctions are formed by each of the five major neuron The diverse functional roles and regulation of neuronal gap junctions in the retina

Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 495 (2009). doi:10.1038/nrn2636

Authors: Stewart A. Bloomfield & Béla Völgyi

Electrical synaptic transmission through gap junctions underlies direct and rapid neuronal communication in the CNS. The diversity of functional roles that electrical synapses have is perhaps best exemplified in the vertebrate retina, in which gap junctions are formed by each of the five major neuron

]]> The diverse functional roles and regulation of neuronal gap junctions in the retina Stewart A. Bloomfield Béla Völgyi doi:10.1038/nrn2636 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 495 (2009) 2009-06-03 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2009-06-03 10.1038/nrn2636 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2636 10 7 Review 495 506 Circuits controlling vertebrate locomotion: moving in a new direction http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2608 Neurobiologists have long sought to understand how circuits in the nervous system are organized to generate the precise neural outputs that underlie particular behaviours. The motor circuits in the spinal cord that control locomotion, commonly referred to as central pattern generator networks, provide an experimentally Circuits controlling vertebrate locomotion: moving in a new direction

Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 507 (2009). doi:10.1038/nrn2608

Author: Martyn Goulding

Neurobiologists have long sought to understand how circuits in the nervous system are organized to generate the precise neural outputs that underlie particular behaviours. The motor circuits in the spinal cord that control locomotion, commonly referred to as central pattern generator networks, provide an experimentally

]]> Circuits controlling vertebrate locomotion: moving in a new direction Martyn Goulding doi:10.1038/nrn2608 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 507 (2009) Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10.1038/nrn2608 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2608 10 7 Review 507 518 Tests to assess motor phenotype in mice: a user's guide http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2652 The characterization of mouse models of human disease is essential for understanding the underlying pathophysiology and developing new therapeutics. Many diseases are often associated with more than one model, and so there is a need to determine which model most closely represents the disease state Tests to assess motor phenotype in mice: a user's guide

Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 519 (2009). doi:10.1038/nrn2652

Authors: Simon P. Brooks & Stephen B. Dunnett

The characterization of mouse models of human disease is essential for understanding the underlying pathophysiology and developing new therapeutics. Many diseases are often associated with more than one model, and so there is a need to determine which model most closely represents the disease state

]]> Tests to assess motor phenotype in mice: a user's guide Simon P. Brooks Stephen B. Dunnett doi:10.1038/nrn2652 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 519 (2009) 2009-06-10 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2009-06-10 10.1038/nrn2652 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2652 10 7 Review 519 529 Principles of neural ensemble physiology underlying the operation of brain–machine interfaces http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2653 Research on brain–machine interfaces has been ongoing for at least a decade. During this period, simultaneous recordings of the extracellular electrical activity of hundreds of individual neurons have been used for direct, real-time control of various artificial devices. Brain–machine interfaces have also added greatly to Principles of neural ensemble physiology underlying the operation of brain–machine interfaces

Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 530 (2009). doi:10.1038/nrn2653

Authors: Miguel A. L. Nicolelis & Mikhail A. Lebedev

Research on brain–machine interfaces has been ongoing for at least a decade. During this period, simultaneous recordings of the extracellular electrical activity of hundreds of individual neurons have been used for direct, real-time control of various artificial devices. Brain–machine interfaces have also added greatly to

]]> Principles of neural ensemble physiology underlying the operation of brain–machine interfaces Miguel A. L. Nicolelis Mikhail A. Lebedev doi:10.1038/nrn2653 Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 530 (2009) Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10.1038/nrn2653 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2653 10 7 Perspectives 530 540