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  • Review Article
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The phage-related chromosomal islands of Gram-positive bacteria

Nature Reviews Microbiology volume 8, pages 541–551 (2010)Cite this article

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Key Points

  • Staphylococcus aureus pathogenicity islands (SaPIs) are highly mobile phage-related mobile genetic elements in staphylococci. Elements similar to SaPIs have been detected in related Gram-positive bacteria, prompting a name change to phage-related chromosomal islands (PRCIs).

  • PRCIs are normally quiescent until they are induced by a helper phage that inactivates the repressor Stl. The mechanism of induction seems to vary between Stl molecules and requires helper phages specific for the SaPI.

  • SaPIs are packaged by capsid proteins encoded by the helper phage, but helper phage DNA is excluded. Therefore, SaPIs can hijack the helper phage to mediate their own spread.

  • In some cases autonomous replication of the SaPIs takes place. There are several proposed models for replication mechanisms in these SaPIs.

  • Recently, high-frequency transfer of SaPIs to Listeria monocytogenes was demonstrated, suggesting that silent phage-mediated intergeneric transfer may be an important but, to date, unrecognized mode of horizontal gene transfer among bacteria.

Abstract

The phage-related chromosomal islands (PRCIs) were first identified in Staphylococcus aureus as highly mobile, superantigen-encoding genetic elements known as the S. aureus pathogenicity islands (SaPIs). These elements are characterized by a specific set of phage-related functions that enable them to use the phage reproduction cycle for their own transduction and inhibit phage reproduction in the process. SaPIs produce many phage-like infectious particles; their streptococcal counterparts have a role in gene regulation but may not be infectious. These elements therefore represent phage satellites or parasites, not defective phages. In this Review, we discuss the shared genetic content of PRCIs, their life cycle and their ability to be transferred across large phylogenetic distances.

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Figure 1: Comparison of phage-related chromosomal island genomes.
Figure 2: Staphylococcal pathogenicity island replication scenarios.
Figure 3: Electron microscopy of phage and Staphylococcus aureus pathogenicity island particles.

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Change history

  • 16 July 2010

    In this article, the middle initial of one of the authors was omitted in the printed version. The author's full name is Gail E. Christie.

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Acknowledgements

We acknowledge, with gratitude, the scientific and intellectual contributions of the many members of our respective laboratories.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. New York University School of Medicine, Kimmel Center for Biology and Medicine, Skirball institute of Biomolecular Medicine, Molecular Pathogenesis Program, 540 First Avenue, New York, 10016, New York, USA

    Richard P. Novick

  2. Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Microbiology and Immunology, PO BOX 980678, Richmond, 23298-0678, Virginia, USA

    Gail E. Christie

  3. Departamento de Química, Universidad Cardenal Herrera CEU, Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Valencia, 46113, Moncada, Spain

    Jose R. Penadés

Authors
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Correspondence to Richard P. Novick.

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Supplementary information

Related links

Related links

DATABASES

Entrez Genome

phage 80α

phage 85

phage ϕ13

phage P4

phage PH15

Entrez Genome Project

Bacillus subtilis

Enterococcus faecalis

Escherichia coli

Lactococcus lactis

Listeria monocytogenes

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus chromogenes

Staphylococcus epidermidis

Staphylococcus xylosus

Streptococcus pyogenes

Sulfolobus islandicus

GenBank

NC_007622

FURTHER INFORMATION

Richard P. Novick's homepage

Glossary

Prophage

A quiescent form of a bacteriophage (usually inserted into the chromosome of its host), in which the lytic functions of the phage are repressed.

Iteron

One member of a set of short repeated DNA sequences that are located at a bacterial origin of replication and are required for the initiation of replication.

SOS response

A global stress response to DNA-damaging agents such as ultraviolet light or mitomycin C.

Campbell mechanism

A recombinational mechanism for the insertion of a genetic element, such as a phage genome or a plasmid, into the bacterial chromosome, involving circularization of the element followed by a single crossover with a chromosomal target site.

Lysogen

A bacterium containing an inducible prophage.

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Novick, R., Christie, G. & Penadés, J. The phage-related chromosomal islands of Gram-positive bacteria. Nat Rev Microbiol 8, 541–551 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro2393

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