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  • Review Article
  • Published:

Staphylococcus epidermidis — the 'accidental' pathogen

Nature Reviews Microbiology volume 7, pages 555–567 (2009)Cite this article

Key Points

  • Staphylococcus epidermidis is a common member of the human epithelial microflora and one of the most frequent nosocomial pathogens.

  • S. epidermidis is mostly involved with indwelling medical device-associated infections.The prevalence of S. epidermidis in this type of infection is likely to be due to its abundance on the human skin and its capacity to adhere to catheter surfaces and form biofilms.

  • Biofilm formation, exopolymers and other mechanisms protect S. epidermidis from antibiotics and host defences.

  • Efficient S. epidermidis biofilm formation is dependent on both protein and exopolysaccharide aggregation substances.

  • S. epidermidis can sense the presence of antimicrobial peptides and trigger defensive responses against this type of innate host defence mechanism, which it encounters in its natural habitat.

  • S. epidermidis functions as a reservoir for genes that can be transferred to Staphylococcus aureus, enhancing the pathogenic success and antibiotic resistance of this more dangerous pathogen.

  • S. epidermidis does not produce aggressive toxins and its immune evasion factors probably have original functions in the commensal lifestyle of this species. This indicates that S. epidermidis infection is 'accidental' in nature.

Abstract

Although nosocomial infections by Staphylococcus epidermidis have gained much attention, this skin-colonizing bacterium has apparently evolved not to cause disease, but to maintain the commonly benign relationship with its host. Accordingly, S. epidermidis does not produce aggressive virulence determinants. Rather, factors that normally sustain the commensal lifestyle of S. epidermidis seem to give rise to additional benefits during infection. Furthermore, we are beginning to comprehend the roles of S. epidermidis in balancing the epithelial microflora and serving as a reservoir of resistance genes. In this Review, I discuss the molecular basis of the commensal and infectious lifestyles of S. epidermidis.

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Figure 1: Biofilm development in Staphylococcus epidermidis.
Figure 2: The Staphylococcus epidermidis cell surface.
Figure 3: The exopolysaccharide poly-N-acetylglucosamine.
Figure 4: Phenol-soluble modulins.
Figure 5: The antimicrobial peptide sensor and regulator Aps.
Figure 6: Staphylococcus epidermidis as a commensal and infectious microorganism.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the intramural research programme of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases.

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    Michael Otto

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DATABASES

Entrez Genome Project

Bacillus anthracis

Caenorhabditis elegans

Escherichia coli

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Staphylococcus aureus

S. epidermidis ATCC 12228

S. epidermidis RP62A

Yersinia pestis

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Glossary

Biofilm

A multicellular agglomeration of microorganisms that forms on a surface. Biofilms have a characteristic three-dimensional structure and physiology.

Quorum sensing

A method of cell density-dependent gene regulation in bacteria. Quorum sensing systems in Gram-positive bacteria commonly contain peptide-based secreted signals and a membrane-located sensor. The staphylococcal quorum sensing system is termed agr and controls a series of genes involved in metabolism and virulence.

Antimicrobial peptide

A peptide such as a defensin or cathelicidin, which have antimicrobial activity. Antimicrobial peptides are secreted by the host, for example, by epithelial cells or into neutrophil phagosomes.

Innate host defence

A part of the immune system that provides the first line of defence, a fast response to invading microorganisms, based on recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns. The innate immune system consists mainly of phagocytes, platelets and secreted antimicrobial peptides.

Neutrophil

The most abundant leukocyte in human blood. Neutrophils are the main cells that eliminate invading microorganisms by uptake and subsequent killing through reactive oxygen species and antimicrobial proteins and peptides.

Acquired host defence

A part of the immune system that depends on antigen-dependent clonal expansion of T and B cells after antigen presentation by professional antigen-presenting cells. The acquired response provides long-term humoral (antibody-based) and cell-mediated immunity, but is delayed.

Sortase

An enzyme that covalently links secreted bacterial surface proteins to peptidoglycan. Most of these proteins are substrates of sortase A and are characterized by an LPXTG amino acid motif at the carboxyl terminus.

Teichoic acid

An anionic cell envelope glycopolymer produced by Gram-positive bacteria, composed of many identical sugar–phosphate-repeating units. Teichoic acids can be linked to peptidoglycan (wall teichoic acids) or to the cytoplasmic membrane through a lipid anchor (lipoteichoic acids).

Pseudopeptide

A peptide that is formed by peptide bonds through carboxyl groups other than the α-carboxyl group.

Pathogen-associated molecular pattern

A surface structure on pathogens that is recognized by the innate immune system as non-self and triggers activation of innate host defence, usually by binding to Toll-like receptors.

Two-component system

A bacterial sensory system composed of a membrane-located sensor (histidine kinase) and a cytoplasmic DNA-binding regulatory protein (response regulator). The autophosphorylation-dependent activation of two-component systems is triggered by an extracellular signal.

Enterotoxin

A protein toxin released by a microorganism into the intestine of its host.

Methicillin

A penicillin derivative that is resistant to penicillinase (an enzyme widespread in staphylococci that provides resistance to penicillin).

Mobile genetic element

DNA such as a plasmid or transposon that can be exchanged between bacteria by horizontal gene transfer. Mobile genetic elements often carry virulence or antibiotic resistance genes.

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Otto, M. Staphylococcus epidermidis — the 'accidental' pathogen. Nat Rev Microbiol 7, 555–567 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro2182

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