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Nucleotide oligomerization domain-containing protein 1 (NOD1) and NOD2 are pattern-recognition receptors that detect bacterial peptidoglycan. Signalling through NODs initiates a variety of effector immune responses that seem to be crucial for maintaining immune homeostasis with the host microbiota. Indeed, mutations in NOD1 and NOD2 are associated with both intestinal and extra-intestinal disease. This Review summarizes our current understanding of the NODs.
Most of our understanding of immunological memory comes from studies in mice. However, these studies cannot recapitulate the exposure to numerous diverse pathogens that occurs over decades in humans. But, as reviewed here, recent studies focusing on human memory T cells are revealing important features of these cells, including subset heterogeneity and spatial compartmentalization.
This Review describes the intricate signalling and epigenetic mechanisms that regulate cellular responses to type I interferons. The authors also discuss how persistent interferon-mediated signalling can have detrimental outcomes in autoimmune disease and chronic infections.
New advances in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms linking cell death and inflammation are discussed in the context of historical studies from the past two centuries.
