Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Review Article
  • Published:

Medaka — a model organism from the far east

Nature Reviews Genetics volume 3, pages 53–64 (2002)Cite this article

Key Points

  • Comparative studies of distantly related vertebrate species are essential to identify the conserved, as well as the species-specific, genetic and molecular mechanisms that underlie development and evolution. Medaka and zebrafish are ideal for this purpose, as both separated from their last common ancestor ∼110 million years ago.

  • The striking difference between the phenotypes that were recovered from developmental screens in medaka and in zebrafish indicates a non-overlapping spectrum of embryonic-lethal phenotypes.

  • The genetic resources established in medaka, such as inbred strains and genetic maps, allow mapping as well as positional cloning of spontaneous and induced mutations.

  • New technologies, such as transgenesis, enhancer trapping and availability of stem cells widen the experimental spectrum in medaka.

  • Like mammals, medaka has an XX, XY sex-determination system, but unlike higher vertebrates, full sex reversals can be obtained. Because sex determination in medaka seems to be at a very early stage of evolution, it might provide useful information on the evolution of sex-determination systems.

  • Mutants that specifically affect eye development, as well as gain-of-function experiments, in medaka have contributed to the general understanding of vertebrate eye development, complementing other vertebrate model systems.

  • Vertebrate genome evolution can be studied by comparative genomic approaches in medaka, fugu and zebrafish.

Abstract

Genome sequencing has yielded a plethora of new genes the function of which can be unravelled through comparative genomic approaches. Increasingly, developmental biologists are turning to fish as model genetic systems because they are amenable to studies of gene function. Zebrafish has already secured its place as a model vertebrate and now its Far Eastern cousin — medaka — is emerging as an important model fish, because of recent additions to the genetic toolkit available for this organism. Already, the popularity of medaka among developmental biologists has led to important insights into vertebrate development.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1: Views on medaka.
Figure 2: Evolutionary relationships between fish models.
Figure 3: Mutant phenotypes that are unique to medaka.
Figure 4: Medaka fish that are transgenic for green fluorescent protein.
Figure 5: Producing sex-reversed medaka.
Figure 6: Schematic representation of vertebrate eye development.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Karakawa, J. & Shibata, T. Local Names (Dialects) of the Medaka — 5000 Variations and their Distribution (in Japanese) (Miousha, Tokyo, 1980).

    Google Scholar 

  2. Yamamoto, T. Medaka (Killifish): Biology and Strains (Keigaku Publishing Co., Tokyo, 1975).

    Google Scholar 

  3. Temminck, J. C. & Schlegel, H. in Fauna Japonica (ed. de Siebold, P. F.) 224–225 (A. Arnz et socios, Leiden, the Netherlands, 1850).

    Google Scholar 

  4. Jordan, D. S. & Snyder, J. O. A review of the poeciliidae or killifishes of Japan. Proc. US Natl Mus. 31, 287–290 (1906).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Aida, T. On the inheritance of color in a freshwater fish, Aplocheilus latipes Temminck and Schlegel, with special reference to sex-linked inheritance. Genetics 6, 554–573 (1921).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. Ishikawa, C. Lectures on Zoology (in Japanese) (Kanazashi-Horyu–Do, Tokyo, 1913).

    Google Scholar 

  7. Toyama, K. On some Mendelian characters (in Japanese). Rep. Jap. Breed. Soc. 1, 1–9 (1916).

    Google Scholar 

  8. Hyodo-Taguchi, Y. & Egami, N. Establishment of inbred strains of the medaka Oryzias latipes and the usefulness of the strains for biomedical research. Zool. Sci. 2, 305–316 (1985).

    Google Scholar 

  9. Ozato, K. et al. Production of transgenic fish: introduction and expression of chicken δ-crystallin gene in medaka embryos. Cell Differ. 19, 237–244 (1986).This paper describes the first successful generation of stable transgenic fish by DNA injection into the germinal vesicle, followed by in vitro oocyte maturation.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Shima, A. & Shimada, A. Development of a possible nonmammalian test system for radiation-induced germ-cell mutagenesis using a fish, the Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes). Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 88, 2545–2549 (1991).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Loosli, F. et al. A genetic screen for mutations affecting embryonic development in medaka fish (Oryzias latipes). Mech. Dev. 97, 133–139 (2000).This paper reports a pilot mutagenesis screen and the resulting unique mutant phenotypes; together with reference 14 , it describes the first systematic mutagenesis approach to isolate embryonic-lethal developmental mutants in medaka.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Anken, R. & Bourrat, F. Brain Atlas of the Medakafish Oryzias latipes (Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Paris, 1998).References 12 and 14 together provide the basis for all neuro-developmental studies in medaka.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Ishikawa, Y. Embryonic development of the medaka brain. Fish Biol. J. Medaka 9, 17–31 (1997).

    Google Scholar 

  14. Ishikawa, Y. Medakafish as a model system for vertebrate developmental genetics. Bioessays 22, 487–495 (2000).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Fukamachi, S., Shimada, A. & Shima, A. Mutations in the gene encoding B, a novel transporter protein, reduce melanin content in medaka. Nature Genet. 28, 381–385 (2001).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Loosli, F. et al. Medaka eyeless is the key factor linking retinal dertermination and eye growth. Development 128, 4035–4044 (2001).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Kondo, S. et al. The medaka rs-3 locus required for scale development encodes ectodysplasin-A receptor. Curr. Biol. 7, 1202–1206 (2001).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. 'Zebrafish Issue'. Development 123, 1–481 (1996).A compendium of zebrafish mutants isolated using mutagenesis screens in the laboratories of C. Nüsslein-Volhard and W. Driever.

  19. Dooley, K. & Zon, L. I. Zebrafish: a model system for the study of human disease. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 10, 252–256 (2000).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Childs, S. et al. Zebrafish dracula encodes ferrochelatase and its mutation provides a model for erythropoietic protoporphyria. Curr. Biol. 10, 1001–1004 (2000).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Dodd, A., Curtis, P. M., Williams, L. C. & Love, D. R. Zebrafish: bridging the gap between development and disease. Hum. Mol. Genet. 9, 2443–2449 (2000).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Packer, A. Medaka on the move. Nature Genet. 28, 302 (2001).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Amores, A. et al. Zebrafish hox clusters and vertebrate genome evolution. Science 282, 1711–1714 (1998).Together with references 24 , and 95 , this paper provides evidence that teleost fish underwent an additional round of whole-genome duplication, which can explain why so many gene families in fish have more members than the corresponding ones in amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Postlethwait, J. H. et al. Zebrafish comparative genomics and the origins of vertebrate chromosomes. Genome Res. 10, 1890–1902 (2000).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Woods, I. G. et al. A comparative map of the zebrafish genome. Genome Res. 10, 1903–1914 (2000).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Tomita, H. in Medaka (Killifish): Biology and Strains (ed. Yamamoto, T.) 251–272 (Keigaku Publishing Co., Tokyo, Japan, 1975).

    Google Scholar 

  27. Tomita, H. in Biology of the Medaka (eds Egami, N., Yamagami, K. & Shima, A.) 111–128 (in Japanese) (Univ. of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, 1990).

    Google Scholar 

  28. Tomita, H. The lists of mutants and strains of medaka, commom gambusia, silver crucian carp, goldfish, and golden venus fish maintained in the laboratory of freshwater fish stocks, Nagoya University. Fish Biol. J. Medaka 4, 45–47 (1992).

    Google Scholar 

  29. Law, J. Mechanistic considerations in small fish carcinogenicity testing. ILAR J. 42, 274–284 (2001).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Arcand Hoy, L. D. & Benson, W. H. Fish reproduction: an ecologically relevant indicator of endocrine disruption. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 17, 49–57 (1998).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Metcalfe, C. D. et al. Estrogenic potency of chemicals detected in sewage treatment plant effluents as determined by in vivo assays with Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes). Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 20, 297–308 (2001).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Scholz, S. & Gutzeit, H. O. 17-α-ethinylestradiol affects reproduction, sexual differentiation and aromatase gene expression of the medaka (Oryzias latipes). Aquat. Toxicol. 50, 363–373 (2000).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Shima, A. & Shimada, A. The Japanese medaka, Oryzias latipes, as a new model organism for studying environmental germ-cell mutagenesis. Environ. Health Perspect. (Suppl.) 102, 33–35 (1994).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Solnica-Krezel, L., Schier, A. F. & Driever, W. Efficient recovery of ENU-induced mutations from the zebrafish germline. Genetics 136, 1401–1420 (1994).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Shimada, A. & Shima, A. Combination of genomic DNA fingerprinting into the medaka specific-locus test system for studying environmental germ-line mutagenesis. Mutation Res. 399, 149–165 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Egami, N. Studies on the variation of the number of the anal fin-rays in Oryzias latipes. I. Geographical variation in wild populations (in Japanese with English resumé). Jpn. J. Ichthyol. 3, 87–89 (1953).

    Google Scholar 

  37. Sakaizumi, M., Moriwaki, K. & Egami, N. Allozymic variation and regional differentiation in wild populations of the fish Oryzias latipes. Copeia 2, 311–318 (1983).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Ohtsuka, M. et al. Construction of a linkage map of the medaka (Oryzias latipes) and mapping of the Da mutant locus defective in dorsoventral patterning. Genome Res. 9, 1277–1287 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Naruse, K. et al. A detailed linkage map of medaka, Oryzias latipes: comparative genomics and genome evolution. Genetics 154, 1773–1784 (2000).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Kubota, Y., Shimada, A. & Shima, A. Detection of γ-ray-induced DNA damages in malformed dominant lethal embryos of the Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) using AP-PCR fingerprinting. Mutat. Res. 283, 263–270 (1992).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Wada, H., Naruse, K., Shimada, A. & Shima, A. Genetic linkage map of a fish, the Japanese medaka Oryzias latipes. Mol. Mar. Biol. Biotechnol. 4, 269–274 (1995).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Kubota, Y., Shimada, A. & Shima, A. DNA alterations detected in the progeny of paternally irradiated Japanese medaka fish (Oryzias latipes). Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 92, 330–334 (1995).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Winkler, S., Loosli, F., Henrich, T., Wakamatsu, Y. & Wittbrodt, J. The conditional medaka mutation eyeless uncouples patterning and morphogenesis of the eye. Development 127, 1911–1919 (2000).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Hackett, P. B. & Alvarez, C. in Recent Advances in Marine Biotechnology — Aquaculture of Fishes (eds Fingerman, M. & Nagabhushanam, R.) 77–145 (Science Publisher Inc., Enfield, UK, 2000).

    Google Scholar 

  45. Köster, R., Stick, R., Loosli, F. & Wittbrodt, J. Medaka spalt acts as a target gene of hedgehog signaling. Development 124, 3147–3156 (1997).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Loosli, F., Winkler, S. & Wittbrodt, J. Six3 overexpression initiates the formation of ectopic retina. Genes Dev. 13, 649–654 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Carl, M. & Wittbrodt, J. Graded interference with FGF-signalling reveals its dorso-ventral asymmetry at the mid–hindbrain boundary. Development 126, 5659–5667 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Yamauchi, K. & Yamamoto, K. In vitro maturation of the oocytes in the medaka, Oryzias latipes. Annotat. Zool. Japon. 46, 144–153 (1973).

    Google Scholar 

  49. Tanaka, M., Kinoshita, M., Kobayashi, D. & Nagahama, Y. Establishment of medaka (Oryzias latipes) transgenic lines with the expression of green fluorescent protein fluorescence exclusively in germ cells: a useful model to monitor germ cells in a live vertebrate. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 98, 2544–2549 (2001).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Wakamatsu, Y., Pristyazhnyuk, S., Kinoshita, M., Tanaka, M. & Ozato, K. The see-through medaka: a fish model that is transparent throughout life. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 98, 10046–10050 (2001).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. Gaiano, N. et al. Insertional mutagenesis and rapid cloning of essential genes in zebrafish. Nature 383, 829–832 (1996).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Rubin, G. M. & Spradling, A. C. Genetic transformation of Drosophila with transposable element vectors. Science 218, 348–353 (1982).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. O'Kane, C. J. & Gehring, W. J. Detection in situ of genomic regulatory elements in Drosophila. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 84, 9123–9127 (1987).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Cooley, L., Berg, C. & Spradling, A. Controlling P element insertional mutagenesis. Trends Genet. 4, 254–258 (1988).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Gibbs, P. D., Gray, A. & Thorgaard, G. Inheritance of P element and reporter gene sequences in zebrafish. Mol. Mar. Biol. Biotechnol. 3, 317–326 (1994).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Handler, A. M., Gomez, S. P. & O'Brochta, D. A. A functional analysis of the P-element gene-transfer vector in insects. Arch. Insect Biochem. Physiol. 22, 373–384 (1993).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Rio, D. C., Barnes, G., Laski, F. A., Rine, J. & Rubin, G. M. Evidence for Drosophila P element transposase activity in mammalian cells and yeast. J. Mol. Biol. 200, 411–415 (1988).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Vos, J. C., De Baere, I. & Plasterk, R. H. Transposase is the only nematode protein required for in vitro transposition of Tc1. Genes Dev. 10, 755–761 (1996).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Ivics, Z., Hackett, P. B., Plasterk, R. H. & Izsvak, Z. Molecular reconstruction of Sleeping Beauty, a Tc1-like transposon from fish, and its transposition in human cells. Cell 91, 501–510 (1997).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Henrich, T. Enhancer Trapping in Medaka using the Reconstructed Transposon “Sleeping Beauty” 106 (Ruprecht-Karls-Universität, Heidelberg, 1999).

    Google Scholar 

  61. Koga, A., Inagaki, H., Bessho, Y. & Hori, H. Insertion of a novel transposable element in the tyrosinase gene is responsible for an albino mutation in the medaka fish, Oryzias latipes. Mol. Gen. Genet. 249, 400–405 (1995).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Koga, A., Suzuki, M., Inagaki, H., Bessho, Y. & Hori, H. Transposable element in fish. Nature 383, 30 (1996).Identification of an actively relocating transposon in medaka and its successful transient application in zebrafish (also see reference 63).

  63. Kawakami, K., Koga, A., Hori, H. & Shima, A. Excision of the Tol2 transposable element of the medaka fish, Oryzias latipes, in zebrafish, Danio rerio. Gene 225, 17–22 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Dickmeis, T. et al. A crucial component of the endoderm formation pathway, CASANOVA, is encoded by a novel sox-related gene. Genes Dev. 15, 1487–1492 (2001).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Sun, L. et al. ES-like cell cultures derived from early zebrafish embryos. Mol. Mar. Biol. Biotechnol. 4, 193–199 (1995).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Wakamatsu, Y., Ozato, K. & Sasado, T. Establishment of a pluripotent cell line derived from a medaka (Oryzias latipes) blastula embryo. Mol. Mar. Biol. Biotechnol. 3, 185–191 (1994).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Hong, Y., Winkler, C. & Schartl, M. Pluripotency and differentiation of embryonic stem cell lines from the medakafish (Oryzias latipes). Mech. Dev. 60, 33–44 (1996).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Ma, C. G., Fan, L. C., Ganassin, R., Bols, N. & Collodi, P. Production of zebrafish germ-line chimeras from embryo cell cultures. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 98, 2461–2466 (2001).This paper reports cell transplantation studies from short-term cultured blastula cells, showing that these cells contribute to the germ line of the recipient, and can give rise to offspring that are derived from the donor transplant cell.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  69. Hong, Y., Winkler, C. & Schartl, M. Production of medakafish chimeras from a stable embryonic stem cell line. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 95, 3679–3684 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  70. Yan, S. Y. Cloning in Fish: Nucleocytoplasmic Hybrids (Educational and Cultural Press, Hongkong, 1998).

    Google Scholar 

  71. Wakamatsu, Y. et al. Fertile and diploid nuclear transplants derived from embryonic cells of a small laboratory fish, medaka (Oryzias latipes). Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 98, 1071–1076 (2001).An impressive technical study in medaka that describes how nuclear transplantation can be used for the production of clonal fish.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  72. Chen, S., Hong, Y. & Schartl, M. Development of a positive–negative selection procedure for gene targeting in fish cells. Aquaculture (in the press).

  73. Ristoratore, F. et al. The midbrain–hindbrain boundary genetic cascade is activated ectopically in the diencephalon in response to the widespread expression of one of its components, the medaka gene Ol-eng2. Development 126, 3769–3779 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Nguyen, V. et al. Morphogenesis of the optic tectum in the medaka (Oryzias latipes): a morphological and molecular study, with special emphasis on cell proliferation. J. Comp. Neurol. 413, 385–404 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Baroiller, J. F., Guigen, Y. & Fostier, A. Endocrine and environmental aspects of sex differentiation in fish. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 55, 910–931 (1999).A comprehensive overview that describes the regulation of differentiation of the male and female gonads in fish by endocrine factors or environmental influences.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Wada, H., Shimada, A., Fukamachi, S., Naruse, K. & Shima, A. Sex-linked inheritance of the lf locus in the medaka fish (Oryzias latipes). Zool. Sci. 15, 123–126 (1998).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Matsuda, M., Matsuda, C., Hamaguchi, S. & Sakaizumi, M. Identification of the sex chromosomes of the medaka, Oryzias latipes, by fluorescence in situ hybridization. Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 82, 257–262 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Matsuda, M., Sotoyama, S., Hamaguchi, S. & Sakaizumi, M. Male-specific recombination frequency in the sex chromosomes of the medaka, Oryzias latipes. Genet. Res. 73, 225–231 (1999).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Yamamoto, T. Artificial induction of functional sex-reversal in genotypic females of the medaka (Oryzias latipes). J. Exp. Zool. 137, 227–264 (1958).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Fukada, S., Tanaka, M., Iwaya, M., Nakajima, M. & Nagahama, Y. The SOX gene family and its expression during embryogenesis in the teleost fish, medaka (Oryzias latipes). Dev. Growth Differ. 37, 379–385 (1995).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Brunner, B. et al. Genomic organization and expression of the doublesex-related gene cluster in vertebrates and detection of putative regulatory regions for DMRT1. Genomics 77, 8–17 (2001).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Niehrs, C. Head in the WNT. Trends Genet. 15, 314–319 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Heisenberg, C. P. et al. A mutation in the Gsk3-binding domain of zebrafish Masterblind/Axin1 leads to a fate transformation of telencephalon and eyes to diencephalon. Genes Dev. 15, 1427–1434 (2001).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Simeone, A. Otx1 and Otx2 in the development and evolution of the mammalian brain. EMBO J. 17, 6790–6798 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  85. Zuber, M. E., Perron, M., Philpott, A., Bang, A. & Harris, W. A. Giant eyes in Xenopus laevis by overexpression of XOptx2. Cell 98, 341–352 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Zhou, X., Hollemann, T., Pieler, T. & Gruss, P. Cloning and expression of xSix3, the Xenopus homologue of murine Six3. Mech. Dev. 91, 327–330 (2000).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Chiang, C. et al. Cyclopia and defective axial patterning in mice lacking Sonic Hedgehog gene function. Nature 383, 407–413 (1996).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Macdonald, R. et al. Midline signalling is required for Pax gene regulation and patterning of the eyes. Development 121, 3267–3278 (1995).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Ekker, S. C. et al. Patterning activities of vertebrate hedgehog proteins in the developing eye and brain. Curr. Biol. 5, 944–955 (1995).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Gritsman, K. et al. The EGF–CFC protein one-eyed pinhead is essential for nodal signaling. Cell 97, 121–132 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Varga, Z. M., Wegner, J. & Westerfield, M. Anterior movement of ventral diencephalic precursors separates the primordial eye field in the neural plate and requires cyclops. Development 126, 5533–5546 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Mathers, P. H. & Jamrich, M. Regulation of eye formation by the Rx and pax6 homeobox genes. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 57, 186–194 (2000).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Andreazzoli, M., Gestri, G., Angeloni, D., Menna, E. & Barsacchi, G. Role of Xrx1 in Xenopus eye and anterior brain development. Development 126, 2451–2460 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Wittbrodt, J., Meyer, A. & Schartl, M. More genes in fish? Bioessays 20, 511–515 (1998).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  95. Postlethwait, J. H. et al. Vertebrate genome evolution and the zebrafish gene map. Nature Genet. 18, 345–349 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Robinson-Rechavi, M., Marchant, O., Escriva, H. & Laudet, V. An ancestral whole-genome duplication may not have been responsible for the abundance of duplicated fish genes. Curr. Biol. 11, R458–R459 (2001).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Taylor, J. S., Van de Peer, Y., Braasch, I. & Meyer, A. Comparative genomics provides evidence for an ancient genome duplication event in fish. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 356, 1661–1679.

  98. Force, A. et al. Preservation of duplicate genes by complementary degenerative mutations. Genetics 151, 1531–1545 (1999).Presentation of an elegant duplication–degeneration–complementation model that explains the unexpected complexity of fish genomes.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  99. Matsuda, M. et al. Construction of a BAC library derived from the inbred Hd-rR strain of the teleost fish, Oryzias latipes. Genes Genet. Syst. 76, 61–63 (2001).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Gawantka, V. et al. Gene expression screening in Xenopus identifies molecular pathways, predicts gene function and provides a global view of embryonic patterning. Mech. Dev. 77, 95–141 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Henrich, T. & Wittbrodt, J. An in situ hybridization screen for the rapid isolation of differentially expressed genes. Dev. Genes Evol. 210, 28–33 (2000).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Nguyen, V., Joly, J. S. & Bourrat, F. An in situ screen for genes controlling cell proliferation in the optic tectum of the medaka (Oryzias latipes). Mech. Dev. 107, 55–67 (2001).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Shimoda, N. et al. Zebrafish genetic map with 2000 microsatellite markers. Genomics 58, 219–232 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Himmelbauer, H. et al. Complex probes for high-throughput parallel genetic mapping of genomic mouse BAC clones. Mamm. Genome 9, 611–619 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Nasevicius, A. & Ekker, S. C. Effective targeted gene 'knockdown' in zebrafish. Nature Genet. 26, 216–220 (2000).The key paper on the use of morpholino oligonucleotides in fish. Provides technical details and a perspective on where morpholino-based research will lead to.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Venter, J. C. et al. The sequence of the human genome. Science 291, 1304–1351 (2001).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Hinegardner, R. & Rosen, D. E. Cellular DNA content and the evolution of teleostean fishes. Am. Nat. 106, 621–644 (1972).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Lamatsch, D. K., Steinlein, C., Schmid, M. & Schartl, M. Noninvasive determination of genome size and ploidy level in fishes by flow cytometry: detection of triploid Poecilia formosa. Cytometry 39, 91–95 (2000).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Maier, D., Marte, B. M., Schaefer, W., Yu, Y. & Preiss, A. Drosophila evolution challenges postulated redundancy in the E(spl) gene complex. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 90, 5464–5468 (1993).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  110. Iwamatsu, T. Stages of normal development in the medaka Oryzias latipes. Zool. Sci. 11, 825–839 (1994).

    Google Scholar 

  111. Westerfield, M. The Zebrafish Book (Univ. of Oregon Press, Eugene, Oregon, 1995).

    Google Scholar 

  112. Krone, A. & Wittbrodt, J. A simple and reliable protocol for cyropreservation of medaka (Oryzias latipes) spermatozoa. Fish Biol. J. Medaka 9, 47–48 (1997).

    Google Scholar 

  113. Aoki, K., Okamoto, M., Tatsumi, K. & Ishikawa, Y. Cryopreservation of medaka spermatozoa. Zool. Sci. 14, 641–644 (1997).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  114. Hamaguchi, S. & Sakaizumi, M. Sexually differentiated mechanisms of sterility in interspecific hybrids between Oryzias latipes and O. curvinotus. J. Exp. Zool. 263, 323–329 (1992).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Nelson, J. S. Fishes of the World (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1994).

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We are indebted to our colleagues F. Loosli, D. Arendt, A. Shimada, H. Mitani, C. Winkler, J.-N. Volff and all other members of the labs of the three authors for their input into the manuscript. We also appreciate the input of H. Kondoh, M. Furutani-Seiki and Y. Wakamatsu. We thank our colleagues in the field who shared their data with us before publication and apologize to all whose work could not be cited due to space limitations.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Developmental Biology Programme, EMBL-Heidelberg, Meyerhofstrasse 1, Heidelberg, 69012, Germany

    Joachim Wittbrodt

  2. Department of Integrated Biosciences 102, and Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa-City, 277-8562, Tokyo, Japan

    Akihiro Shima

  3. Theodor-Boveri Institute für Biowissenschaften, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany

    Manfred Schartl

Authors
  1. Joachim Wittbrodt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Akihiro Shima
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Manfred Schartl
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Joachim Wittbrodt.

Related links

Related links

DATABASES

LocusLink

Nodal

Pax6

Shh

Six3

SRY

Wnt

FURTHER INFORMATION

EST database: and Medaka Genome Initiative

Medakafish homepage

RZPD

Glossary

ZOOGEOGRAPHY

The discipline of biology that deals with the geographical distribution of animals.

MULTI-LOCUS TESTER STRAIN

Strain that is homozygous at several recessive loci and is used to detect induced recessive mutations in the germ line; the higher the number of marker loci, the higher the detection efficiency.

ENDOCRINE DISRUPTOR

An exogenous substance that changes endocrine function and causes adverse effects at the level of the organism, its progeny and/or the population.

INBRED STRAIN

A strain is considered inbred when it is homozygous at 99% of loci. This level of homozygosity can be achieved after at least 20 generations of successive brother–sister matings.

AFLP

A mapping method in which genomic DNA from different strains is PCR amplified using arbitrary primers. DNA fragments that are amplified in one strain, but not the other, are cloned, sequenced and used as polymorphic markers.

MORPHOLINO

Chemically modified oligonucleotide that behaves as an RNA analogue and has been used to interfere with gene function in fish. Because it interferes with translation, a morpholino is designed to complement the region around the translational start site of the target gene.

GERMINAL VESICLE STAGE

A stage during oocyte maturation in which the oocyte nucleus is located close to the surface of the egg cell and is clearly visible.

MIDBLASTULA TRANSITION

A stage during embryogenesis when zygotic transcription starts and cell divisions become asynchronous.

PSEUDOTYPED RETROVIRUS

Retrovirus, the host range of which has been altered; they were initially developed for human gene therapy.

TRANSGENESIS FREQUENCY

The frequency of injected embryos that are stably transgenic and transmit the transgene to the next generation.

GERM-LINE TRANSMISSION RATE

The rate of transgenic F1 offspring that arise from a cross between a transgenic founder fish and a wild-type fish. It reflects germ-line mosaicism, depends on the time point of integration and cannot exceed 50%.

ENHANCER TRAPPING

A strategy that uses targeting vectors to trap or isolate enhancers of nearby genes. The inserted vector sequence acts as a tag that facilitates cloning of the neighbouring gene.

FACS SORTING

A method whereby dissociated and individual living cells are sorted, in a liquid stream, according to the intensity of fluorescence that they emit as they pass through a laser beam.

MIDBLASTULA

Early stage of fish embryonic development corresponding to ∼1,000 totipotent cells that form a cap on the yolk.

EUPLOID KARYOTYPE

Complete chromosome set, without any deletions or additions of whole chromosomes or chromosome fragments.

EMBRYOID BODY

Ball-like structure that forms from embryonic stem cells when they are kept in suspension culture.

DEGREE OF CHIMERISM

The proportion of differentiated embryonic cells that are derived from the embryonic stem cells.

CYPRINID FISH

A large group of freshwater fish species that includes the common carp, goldfish and zebrafish.

CLASS

A taxonomic group.

GONOCHORISM

The presence of separate male and female sexes in a species (opposite to hermaphrodism).

GASTRULATION

A morphogenetic process in embryogenesis during which the mesoderm is formed.

EYE FIELD

An epithelial eye precursor in the anterior neuroectoderm.

NEURAL PLATE

Ectodermally derived precursor of the brain and spinal cord that forms at the beginning of neurulation.

ANLAGE

A precursor tissue before its determination and differentiation.

MIDLINE

The notochord and its anterior extension, the prechordal plate, which are located in the ventral midline of the developing embryo.

NEURULA

A developmental embryonic stage at the end of gastrulation that corresponds to the formation of the neural plate.

PARALOGUE

Homologous gene that originates by gene duplication.

ORTHOLOGUE

Homologous gene in different species the lineage of which derives from a common ancestral gene without gene duplication or horizontal transmission.

RADIATION HYBRID PANEL

A set of DNA samples prepared from a collection of radiation hybrids, each of which is a clonal population of cells that are derived by the fusion of lethally X-irradiated donor cells with mammalian cells. Such cell lines can be used to create a physical map of the donor genome.

CILIARY MARGIN

An area at the margin of neuroretina and pigmented epithelium that contains cells with stem-cell characteristics.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Wittbrodt, J., Shima, A. & Schartl, M. Medaka — a model organism from the far east. Nat Rev Genet 3, 53–64 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg704

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg704

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing