Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Review Article
  • Published:

Molecular imaging in cardiovascular disease: targets and opportunities

Nature Reviews Cardiology volume 6, pages 569–579 (2009)Cite this article

Abstract

The practice of clinical cardiology employs many imaging techniques for diagnosis, risk stratification and therapeutic monitoring. These imaging modalities largely provide anatomical or structural information, and only indirectly reflect underlying molecular events. Molecular imaging techniques report on entities or processes that can be defined at the molecular, as opposed to the anatomical, level. For example, molecular imaging can reveal the expression or activity of a specific protein, the fate or localization of a biomolecule, or the activity of a biological pathway. This Review highlights key processes and molecular targets that are currently being investigated experimentally by molecular imaging probes in vivo. Collectively, these targets have an important role in the development of atherosclerosis and acute plaque rupture, as well as in myocardial disease. Molecular imaging technology is now progressing towards clinical application in humans and has the potential to guide diagnosis, risk assessment and treatment response. Imaging-based surrogate end points could speed the development of new drugs, particularly those with novel mechanisms of action. More broadly, by noninvasively reporting on molecular processes in vivo, molecular imaging can reveal how specific proteins or pathways function in their native context, thus contributing to a systems-level understanding of cardiovascular disease biology.

Key Points

  • The imaging techniques currently used in clinical cardiology predominantly provide structural or anatomical information

  • Molecular imaging probes report on the expression or activity of proteins, biological pathways or cells, such as apoptosis, thrombus formation or stabilization, and cellular metabolism

  • Molecular imaging targets can be engaged by antibodies, peptides, aptamers, or small molecules

  • Existing molecular imaging probes have been widely tested in murine or large-animal models of atherosclerosis or myocardial disease; a small number of probes are being investigated in human trials

  • Unbiased screens for novel imaging probes with no prespecified target could facilitate the discovery of novel imaging agents and targets

  • Targeted molecular imaging probes can contribute to phenotyping of patients, drug development, translational studies, and a systems-level view of cardiovascular disease

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1: A VCAM1-targeted magnetofluorescent nanoparticle reveals the effect of atorvastatin treatment in apolipoprotein E knockout mice on a high-cholesterol diet.
Figure 2: Design of a cathepsin-activated imaging probe.
Figure 3: Structure and activity of myeloperoxidase-activated probe.
Figure 4: In vivo MRI of human thrombi using a fibrin-targeting peptide conjugated to gadolinium–tetraazacyclododecane tetraacetic acid (EP-2104R).
Figure 5: Synthetic HDL-mimetic nanoparticles.
Figure 6
Figure 7: Use of a metabolic imaging probe (18F-FDG PET) to visualize the effect of therapies targeting metabolic pathways.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Libby, P. Inflammation in atherosclerosis. Nature 420, 868–874 (2002).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Fuster, V., Moreno, P. R., Fayad, Z. A., Corti, R. & Badimon, J. J. Atherothrombosis and high-risk plaque: part I: evolving concepts. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 46, 937–954 (2005).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Lipinski, M. J., Fuster, V., Fisher, E. A. & Fayad, Z. A. Technology insight: targeting of biological molecules for evaluation of high-risk atherosclerotic plaques with magnetic resonance imaging. Nat. Clin. Pract. Cardiovasc. Med. 1, 48–55 (2004).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Sosnovik, D. E., Nahrendorf, M. & Weissleder, R. Targeted imaging of myocardial damage. Nat. Clin. Pract. Cardiovasc. Med. 5 (Suppl. 2), S63–S70 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. Cybulsky, M. I. et al. A major role for VCAM-1, but not ICAM-1, in early atherosclerosis. J. Clin. Invest. 107, 1255–1262 (2001).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. Kaufmann, B. A. et al. Molecular imaging of inflammation in atherosclerosis with targeted ultrasound detection of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1. Circulation 116, 276–284 (2007).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Nahrendorf, M. et al. Noninvasive vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 imaging identifies inflammatory activation of cells in atherosclerosis. Circulation 114, 1504–1511 (2006).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. McAteer, M. A. et al. In vivo magnetic resonance imaging of acute brain inflammation using microparticles of iron oxide. Nat. Med. 13, 1253–1258 (2007).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. de Winther, M. P., van Dijk, K. W., Havekes, L. M. & Hofker, M. H. Macrophage scavenger receptor class A: a multifunctional receptor in atherosclerosis. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 20, 290–297 (2000).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Lipinski, M. J. et al. MRI to detect atherosclerosis with gadolinium-containing immunomicelles targeting the macrophage scavenger receptor. Magn. Reson. Med. 56, 601–610 (2006).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Amirbekian, V. et al. Detecting and assessing macrophages in vivo to evaluate atherosclerosis noninvasively using molecular MRI. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 104, 961–966 (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Mulder, W. J. et al. Molecular imaging of macrophages in atherosclerotic plaques using bimodal PEG-micelles. Magn. Reson. Med. 58, 1164–1170 (2007).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Tsimikas, S., Shortal, B. P., Witztum, J. L. & Palinski, W. In vivo uptake of radiolabeled MDA2, an oxidation-specific monoclonal antibody, provides an accurate measure of atherosclerotic lesions rich in oxidized LDL and is highly sensitive to their regression. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 20, 689–697 (2000).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Briley-Saebo, K. C. et al. Targeted molecular probes for imaging atherosclerotic lesions with magnetic resonance using antibodies that recognize oxidation-specific epitopes. Circulation 117, 3206–3215 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. Weissleder, R. et al. Ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide: characterization of a new class of contrast agents for MR imaging. Radiology 175, 489–493 (1990).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Ruehm, S. G., Corot, C., Vogt, P., Kolb, S. & Debatin, J. F. Magnetic resonance imaging of atherosclerotic plaque with ultrasmall superparamagnetic particles of iron oxide in hyperlipidemic rabbits. Circulation 103, 415–422 (2001).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Nahrendorf, M. et al. Nanoparticle PET-CT imaging of macrophages in inflammatory atherosclerosis. Circulation 117, 379–387 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Kooi, M. E. et al. Accumulation of ultrasmall superparamagnetic particles of iron oxide in human atherosclerotic plaques can be detected by in vivo magnetic resonance imaging. Circulation 107, 2453–2458 (2003).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Harisinghani, M. G. et al. Noninvasive detection of clinically occult lymph-node metastases in prostate cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 348, 2491–2499 (2003).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Jones, C. B., Sane, D. C. & Herrington, D. M. Matrix metalloproteinases: a review of their structure and role in acute coronary syndrome. Cardiovasc. Res. 59, 812–823 (2003).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Garcia-Touchard, A. et al. Extracellular proteases in atherosclerosis and restenosis. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 25, 1119–1127 (2005).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Schäfers, M. et al. Scintigraphic imaging of matrix metalloproteinase activity in the arterial wall in vivo. Circulation 109, 2554–2559 (2004).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Su, H. et al. Noninvasive targeted imaging of matrix metalloproteinase activation in a murine model of postinfarction remodeling. Circulation 112, 3157–3167 (2005).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Breyholz, H. J. et al. A 18F-radiolabeled analogue of CGS 27023A as a potential agent for assessment of matrix-metalloproteinase activity in vivo. Q. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging 51, 24–32 (2007).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Lancelot, E. et al. Evaluation of matrix metalloproteinases in atherosclerosis using a novel noninvasive imaging approach. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 28, 425–432 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Chen, J. et al. Near-infrared fluorescent imaging of matrix metalloproteinase activity after myocardial infarction. Circulation 111, 1800–1805 (2005).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. Nahrendorf, M. et al. The healing myocardium sequentially mobilizes two monocyte subsets with divergent and complementary functions. J. Exp. Med. 204, 3037–3047 (2007).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  28. Deguchi, J. O. et al. Inflammation in atherosclerosis: visualizing matrix metalloproteinase action in macrophages in vivo. Circulation 114, 55–62 (2006).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Sukhova, G. K., Shi, G. P., Simon, D. I., Chapman, H. A. & Libby, P. Expression of the elastolytic cathepsins S and K in human atheroma and regulation of their production in smooth muscle cells. J. Clin. Invest. 102, 576–583 (1998).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Chen, J. et al. In vivo imaging of proteolytic activity in atherosclerosis. Circulation 105, 2766–2771 (2002).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Weissleder, R., Tung, C. H., Mahmood, U. & Bogdanov, A. Jr. In vivo imaging of tumors with protease-activated near-infrared fluorescent probes. Nat. Biotechnol. 17, 375–378 (1999).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Jaffer, F. A. et al. Optical visualization of cathepsin K activity in atherosclerosis with a novel, protease-activatable fluorescence sensor. Circulation 115, 2292–2298 (2007).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Jaffer, F. A. et al. Real-time catheter molecular sensing of inflammation in proteolytically active atherosclerosis. Circulation 118, 1802–1809 (2008).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Sugiyama, S. et al. Macrophage myeloperoxidase regulation by granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor in human atherosclerosis and implications in acute coronary syndromes. Am. J. Pathol. 158, 879–891 (2001).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Hazen, S. L. Myeloperoxidase and plaque vulnerability. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 24, 1143–1146 (2004).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Querol, M., Chen, J. W., Weissleder, R. & Bogdanov, A. Jr. DTPA-bisamide-based MR sensor agents for peroxidase imaging. Org. Lett. 7, 1719–1722 (2005).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Nahrendorf, M. et al. Activatable magnetic resonance imaging agent reports myeloperoxidase activity in healing infarcts and noninvasively detects the antiinflammatory effects of atorvastatin on ischemia-reperfusion injury. Circulation 117, 1153–1160 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Breckwoldt, M. O. et al. Tracking the inflammatory response in stroke in vivo by sensing the enzyme myeloperoxidase. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 105, 18584–18589 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Shepherd, J. et al. A fluorescent probe for the detection of myeloperoxidase activity in atherosclerosis-associated macrophages. Chem. Biol. 14, 1221–1231 (2007).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Yu, X. et al. High-resolution MRI characterization of human thrombus using a novel fibrin-targeted paramagnetic nanoparticle contrast agent. Magn. Reson. Med. 44, 867–872 (2000).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Flacke, S. et al. Novel MRI contrast agent for molecular imaging of fibrin: implications for detecting vulnerable plaques. Circulation 104, 1280–1285 (2001).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Marsh, J. N. et al. Fibrin-targeted perfluorocarbon nanoparticles for targeted thrombolysis. Nanomed. 2, 533–543 (2007).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Overoye-Chan, K. et al. EP-2104R: a fibrin-specific gadolinium-based MRI contrast agent for detection of thrombus. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 130, 6025–6039 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Sirol, M. et al. Chronic thrombus detection with in vivo magnetic resonance imaging and a fibrin-targeted contrast agent. Circulation 112, 1594–1600 (2005).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Spuentrup, E. et al. Molecular magnetic resonance imaging of coronary thrombosis and pulmonary emboli with a novel fibrin-targeted contrast agent. Circulation 111, 1377–1382 (2005).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Spuentrup, E. et al. MR imaging of thrombi using EP-2104R, a fibrin-specific contrast agent: initial results in patients. Eur. Radiol. 18, 1995–2005 (2008).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Tung, C. H. et al. Novel factor XIII probes for blood coagulation imaging. Chembiochem 4, 897–899 (2003).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Jaffer, F. A. et al. Molecular imaging of factor XIIIa activity in thrombosis using a novel, near-infrared fluorescent contrast agent that covalently links to thrombi. Circulation 110, 170–176 (2004).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Nahrendorf, M. et al. Transglutaminase activity in acute infarcts predicts healing outcome and left ventricular remodelling: implications for FXIII therapy and antithrombin use in myocardial infarction. Eur. Heart J. 29, 445–454 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Koopman, G. et al. Annexin V for flow cytometric detection of phosphatidylserine expression on B cells undergoing apoptosis. Blood 84, 1415–1420 (1994).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Blankenberg, F. G. et al. In vivo detection and imaging of phosphatidylserine expression during programmed cell death. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 95, 6349–6354 (1998).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  52. Laufer, E. M., Reutelingsperger, C. P., Narula, J. & Hofstra, L. Annexin A5: an imaging biomarker of cardiovascular risk. Basic Res. Cardiol. 103, 95–104 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Hofstra, L. et al. Visualisation of cell death in vivo in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Lancet 356, 209–212 (2000).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Kietselaer, B. L. et al. Noninvasive detection of plaque instability with use of radiolabeled annexin A5 in patients with carotid-artery atherosclerosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 350, 1472–1473 (2004).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Narula, J. et al. Annexin-V imaging for noninvasive detection of cardiac allograft rejection. Nat. Med. 7, 1347–1352 (2001).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Kietselaer, B. L. et al. Noninvasive detection of programmed cell loss with 99Tc-labeled annexin A5 in heart failure. J. Nucl. Med. 48, 562–567 (2007).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Davies, J. R. et al. Identification of culprit lesions after transient ischemic attack by combined 18F fluorodeoxyglucose positron-emission tomography and high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging. Stroke 36, 2642–2647 (2005).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Tawakol, A. et al. In vivo 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography imaging provides a noninvasive measure of carotid plaque inflammation in patients. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 48, 1818–1824 (2006).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Tahara, N. et al. Simvastatin attenuates plaque inflammation: evaluation by fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 48, 1825–1831 (2006).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Taegtmeyer, H. & Dilsizian, V. Imaging myocardial metabolism and ischemic memory. Nat. Clin. Pract. Cardiovasc. Med. 5, S42–S48 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Biswas, S. K. et al. Fatty acid metabolism and myocardial perfusion imaging for the evaluation of global left ventricular dysfunction following acute myocardial infarction: Comparisons with echocardiography. Int. J. Cardiol. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2008.11.170.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Dilsizian, V. et al. Metabolic imaging with β-methyl-p-[123I]-iodophenyl-pentadecanoic acid identifies ischemic memory after demand ischemia. Circulation 112, 2169–2174 (2005).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Nishimura, M. et al. Prediction of cardiac death in hemodialysis patients by myocardial fatty acid imaging. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 51, 139–145 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Rader, D. J. et al. Role of reverse cholesterol transport in animals and humans and relationship to atherosclerosis. J. Lipid Res. 50 (Suppl.), S189–S194 (2009).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Frias, J. C., Williams, K. J., Fisher, E. A. & Fayad, Z. A. Recombinant HDL-like nanoparticles: a specific contrast agent for MRI of atherosclerotic plaques. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 126, 16316–16317 (2004).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Remaley, A. T. et al. Synthetic amphipathic helical peptides promote lipid efflux from cells by an ABCA1-dependent and an ABCA1-independent pathway. J. Lipid Res. 44, 828–836 (2003).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Cormode, D. P. et al. An ApoA-I mimetic peptide high-density-lipoprotein-based MRI contrast agent for atherosclerotic plaque composition detection. Small 4, 1437–1444 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Cormode, D. P. et al. Nanocrystal core high-density lipoproteins: a multimodality contrast agent platform. Nano Lett. 8, 3715–3723 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  69. Hunt, S. A. et al. 2009 Focused update incorporated into the ACC/AHA 2005 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Heart Failure in Adults. A Report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines Developed in Collaboration With the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 53, e1–e90 (2009).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Tamaki, S. et al. Cardiac iodine-123 metaiodobenzylguanidine imaging predicts sudden cardiac death independently of left ventricular ejection fraction in patients with chronic heart failure and left ventricular systolic dysfunction: results from a comparative study with signal-averaged electrocardiogram, heart rate variability, and QT dispersion. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 53, 426–435 (2009).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Akutsu, Y. et al. The significance of cardiac sympathetic nervous system abnormality in the long-term prognosis of patients with a history of ventricular tachyarrhythmia. J. Nucl. Med. 50, 61–67 (2009).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Ong, S. E. et al. Identifying the proteins to which small-molecule probes and drugs bind in cells. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 106, 4617–4622 (2009).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  73. Weissleder, R., Kelly, K., Sun, E. Y., Shtatland, T. & Josephson, L. Cell-specific targeting of nanoparticles by multivalent attachment of small molecules. Nat. Biotechnol. 23, 1418–1423 (2005).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Leimgruber, A. et al. Behavior of endogenous tumor-associated macrophages assessed in vivo with a functionalized nanoparticle. Neoplasia 11, 459–468 (2009).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  75. Kelly, K. A. et al. Unbiased discovery of in vivo imaging probes through in vitro profiling of nanoparticle libraries. Integr. Biol. 1, 311–317 (2009).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Lorenz, M. W., Markus, H. S., Bots, M. L., Rosvall, M. & Sitzer, M. Prediction of clinical cardiovascular events with carotid intima–media thickness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Circulation 115, 459–467 (2007).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Tardif, J. C., Heinonen, T., Orloff, D. & Libby, P. Vascular biomarkers and surrogates in cardiovascular disease. Circulation 113, 2936–2942 (2006).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Fayad, Z. A., Fuster, V., Nikolaou, K. & Becker, C. Computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging for noninvasive coronary angiography and plaque imaging: current and potential future concepts. Circulation 106, 2026–2034 (2002).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Hargreaves, R. J. The role of molecular imaging in drug discovery and development. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 83, 349–353 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Zalewski, A. & Macphee, C. Role of lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 in atherosclerosis: biology, epidemiology, and possible therapeutic target. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 25, 923–931 (2005).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Wilensky, R. L. et al. Inhibition of lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 reduces complex coronary atherosclerotic plaque development. Nat. Med. 14, 1059–1066 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  82. Mohler, E. R. et al. The effect of darapladib on plasma lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 activity and cardiovascular biomarkers in patients with stable coronary heart disease or coronary heart disease risk equivalent: the results of a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 51, 1632–1641 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Serruys, P. W. et al. Effects of the direct lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A(2) inhibitor darapladib on human coronary atherosclerotic plaque. Circulation 118, 1172–1182 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. MacManus, M. P., Seymour, J. F. & Hicks, R. J. Overview of early response assessment in lymphoma with FDG-PET. Cancer Imaging 7, 10–18 (2007).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  85. Wei, L. H. et al. Changes in tumor metabolism as readout for mammalian target of rapamycin kinase inhibition by rapamycin in glioblastoma. Clin. Cancer Res. 14, 3416–3426 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Engelman, J. A. et al. Effective use of PI3K and MEK inhibitors to treat mutant Kras G12D and PIK3CA H1047R murine lung cancers. Nat. Med. 14, 1351–1356 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  87. Shaw, S. Y. et al. Perturbational profiling of nanomaterial biologic activity. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 105, 7387–7392 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  88. Maynard, A. D. et al. Safe handling of nanotechnology. Nature 444, 267–269 (2006).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

S. Y. Shaw acknowledges funding from the NIH and National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Center for Systems Biology and Cardiovascular Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA

    Stanley Y. Shaw

Authors
  1. Stanley Y. Shaw
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Stanley Y. Shaw.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The author declares no competing financial interests.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Shaw, S. Molecular imaging in cardiovascular disease: targets and opportunities. Nat Rev Cardiol 6, 569–579 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrcardio.2009.119

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrcardio.2009.119

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing