1. Learning Sciences Research Institute, University of Nottingham, Wollaton Road, Nottingham NG8 1BB, UK
2. Department of Psychology, Harvard University, 33 Kirkland Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA

Correspondence to: Camilla K. Gilmore¹Elizabeth S. Spelke² Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to C.K.G. (Email: camilla.gilmore@nottingham.ac.uk) or E.S.S. (Email: spelke@wjh.harvard.edu).

Symbolic arithmetic is fundamental to science, technology and economics, but its acquisition by children typically requires years of effort, instruction and drill^{1, 2}. When adults perform mental arithmetic, they activate nonsymbolic, approximate number representations^{3, 4}, and their performance suffers if this nonsymbolic system is impaired⁵. Nonsymbolic number representations also allow adults, children, and even infants to add or subtract pairs of dot arrays and to compare the resulting sum or difference to a third array, provided that only approximate accuracy is required^{6, 7, 8, 9, 10}. Here we report that young children, who have mastered verbal counting and are on the threshold of arithmetic instruction, can build on their nonsymbolic number system to perform symbolic addition and subtraction^{11, 12, 13, 14, 15}. Children across a broad socio-economic spectrum solved symbolic problems involving approximate addition or subtraction of large numbers, both in a laboratory test and in a school setting. Aspects of symbolic arithmetic therefore lie within the reach of children who have learned no algorithms for manipulating numerical symbols. Our findings help to delimit the sources of children's difficulties learning symbolic arithmetic, and they suggest ways to enhance children's engagement with formal mathematics.

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