Abstract

Pollen analysis of sediments from the Toba Highlands of North Sumatra, Indonesia reported here suggests strongly that forest clearance by man began 7,500 yr BP. Less convincing evidence suggests that man may have been disturbing the vegetation perhaps from 17,800 yr BP, but climate has also changed and isolation of causal factors is, therefore, difficult. No Suma-tran archaeological sites have yet been scientifically excavated, nor are ¹⁴C dates available¹. However, megaliths possibly 2,000 yr old occur in the study area² and Hindu–Buddhist remains occur further south². Lowland shell-middens may be much older^1,3. Forest clearance may havebegun by 11,000 yr BP on Taiwan⁴ and agriculture between 14,000 and 8,000 yr BP in Thailand^5,6 but these conclusions have been disputed^7,9. Archaeological evidence for agriculture dating from 9,000 yr BP onwards has been found in Papua New Guinea^10,11 while rice may have been cultivated in Sulawesi¹² by 6,000 yr BP.