Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • State of the Art
  • Published:

Bisphenol-A and disparities in birth outcomes: a review and directions for future research

Journal of Perinatology volume 30, pages 2–9 (2010)Cite this article

Abstract

Racial disparities in pregnancy outcome in the United States are significant, persistent and costly, but the causes are poorly understood. We propose that disproportionate exposure of African-American women to environmental endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) may contribute to birth outcome disparities. Marked racial segregation, as well as health behaviors associated with poverty could result in differences in exposure to particular EDCs. One EDC that has aroused concern in recent years is bisphenol-A (BPA), a widely used industrial plasticizer with known estrogenic properties. Published studies indicate that excessive BPA exposure is associated with reduced fetal survival, as well as reductions in maternal weight and fetal body weight. Related findings include adverse effects of BPA exposure on ovarian function, mammary gland development, earlier age of puberty onset and some metabolic parameters. However, these findings are largely limited to experimental animal studies, and need to be validated in human populations. Our review supports the need to move beyond the currently dominant toxicological approach to examining the effects of BPA exposure, and rely more on observational human studies and epidemiological methods. Many of the risk factors for racial disparities in pregnancy outcome are global or difficult to modify, but exposure to BPA is a potentially malleable risk factor. If BPA contributes to racial disparities in pregnancy outcome, there are important implications for prevention. It is our hope that this review will stimulate further research in this important and neglected area.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

References

  1. Kleinman JJC, Kessel SSS . Racial differences in low birth weight. Trends and risk factors. N Engl J Med 1987; 317: 749–753.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Infant mortality and low birth weight among black and white infants--United States, 1980-2000. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2002; 51: 589–592.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Silbergeld EK, Patrick TE . Environmental exposures, toxicologic mechanisms, and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005; 192: S11–S21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Morello-Frosch R, Shenassa ED . The environmental riskscape and social inequality: implications for explaining maternal and child health disparities. Environ Health Perspect 2006; 114: 1150–1153.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. Carlsen E, Giwercman A, Keiding N, Skakkebaek NE . Evidence for decreasing quality of semen during past 50 years [see comment]. Br Med J 1992; 305: 609–613.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Bergström R, Adami HO, Möhner M, Zatonski W, Storm H, Ekbom A et al. Increase in testicular cancer incidence in six European countries: a birth cohort phenomenon. J Natl Cancer Inst 1996; 88: 727–733.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Andersen AG, Jensen TK, Carlsen E, Jørgensen N, Andersson AM, Krarup T et al. High frequency of sub-optimal semen quality in an unselected population of young men. Hum Reprod 2000; 15: 366–372.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Toppari J, Kaleva M, Virtanen HE . Trends in the incidence of cryptorchidism and hypospadias, and methodological limitations of registry-based data. Hum Reprod Update 2001; 7: 282–286.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Hotchkiss AK, Rider CV, Blystone CR, Wilson VS, Hartig PC, Ankley GT et al. Fifteen years after Wingspread--environmental endocrine disrupters and human and wildlife health: where we are today and where we need to go. Toxicol Sci 2008; 105: 235–259.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. McLachlan JA, Simpson E, Martin M . Endocrine disrupters and female reproductive health. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006; 20: 63–75.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Whitehead SA, Rice S . Endocrine-disrupting chemicals as modulators of sex steroid synthesis. Best Pract ResClin Endocrinol Metab 2006; 20: 45–61.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Phillips KP, Foster WG . Key developments in endocrine disrupter research and human health. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev 2008; 11: 322–344.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. vom Saal FS, Hughes C . An extensive new literature concerning low-dose effects of bisphenol A shows the need for a new risk assessment. Environ Health Perspect 2005; 113: 926–933.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Welshons WV, Nagel SC, vom Saal FS . Large effects from small exposures. III. Endocrine mechanisms mediating effects of bisphenol A at levels of human exposure. Endocrinology 2006; 147 (6 Suppl): s56–s69.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Vandenberg LN, Maffini MV, Sonnenschein C, Rubin BS, Soto AM . Bisphenol-A and the great divide: a review of controversies in the field of endocrine disruption. Endocr Rev 2009; 30: 75–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  16. Kuo HW, Ding WH . Trace determination of bisphenol A and phytoestrogens in infant formula powders by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2004; 1027: 67–74.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Munguía-López EM, Gerardo-Lugo S, Peralta E, Bolumen S, Soto-Valdez H . Migration of bisphenol A (BPA) from can coatings into a fatty-food simulant and tuna fish. Food Addit Contam 2005; 22: 892–898.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Le HH, Carlson EM, Chua JP, Belcher SM . Bisphenol A is released from polycarbonate drinking bottles and mimics the neurotoxic actions of estrogen in developing cerebellar neurons. Toxicol Lett 2008; 176: 149–156.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Kang JH, Kito K, Kondo F . Factors influencing the migration of bisphenol A from cans. J Food Prot 2003; 66: 1444–1447.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Mountfort KA, Kelly J, Jickells SM, Castle L . Investigations into the potential degradation of polycarbonate baby bottles during sterilization with consequent release of bisphenol A. Food Addit Contam 1997; 14: 737–740.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Goodson A, Robin H, Summerfield W, Cooper I . Migration of bisphenol A from can coatings—effects of damage, storage conditions and heating. Food Addit Contam 2004; 21: 1015–1026.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Kang JH, Kondo F . Bisphenol A migration from cans containing coffee and caffeine. Food Addit Contam 2002; 19: 886–890.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Howe SR, Borodinsky L, Lyon RS . Potential exposure to bisphenol A from food-contact use of epoxy coated cans. J Coatings Technol 1998; 70: 69–74.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Matsumoto A, Kunugita N, Kitagawa K, Isse T, Oyama T, Foureman G et al. Bisphenol A levels in human urine. Environ Health Perspect 2003; 111: 101–104.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Mahalingaiah S, Meeker JD, Pearson KR, Calafat AM, Ye X, Petrozza J et al. Temporal variability and predictors of urinary bisphenol A concentrations in men and women. Environ Health Perspect 2008; 116: 173–178.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Loos R, Hanke G, Eisenreich SJ . Multi-component analysis of polar water pollutants using sequential solid-phase extraction followed by LC-ESI-MS. J Environ Monit 2003; 5: 384–394.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Boyd GR, Palmeri JM, Zhang S, Grimm DA . Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) and endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in storm water canals and Bayou St John in New Orleans, Louisiana, USA. Sci Total Environ 2004; 333: 137–148.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Jackson J, Sutton R . Sources of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in urban wastewater, Oakland, CA. Sci Total Environ 2008; 405: 153–160.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Wilson NK, Chuang JC, Morgan MK, Lordo RA, Sheldon LS . An observational study of the potential exposures of preschool children to pentachlorophenol, bisphenol-A, and nonylphenol at home and daycare. Environ Res 2007; 103: 9–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Yamamoto T, Yasuhara A, Shiraishi H, Nakasugi O . Bisphenol A in hazardous waste landfill leachates. Chemosphere 2001; 42: 415–418.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Fuerhacker, M . Bisphenol A emission factors from industrial sources and elimination rates in a sewage treatment plant. Water Sci Technol 2003; 47: 117–122.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Calafat AM, Ye X, Wong L-Y, Reidy JA, Needham LL . Exposure of the US population to Bisphenol A and 4-tertiary-Octylphenol: 2003-2004. Environ Health Perspect 2008; 116: 39–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Brock JW, Yoshimura Y, Barr JR, Maggio VL, Graiser SR, Nakazawa H et al. Measurement of bisphenol A levels in human urine. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 2001; 11: 323–328.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Arakawa C, Fujimaki K, Yoshinaga J, Imai H, Serizawa S, Shiraishi H . Daily urinary excretion of bisphenol A. Environ Health Prev Med 2004; 9: 22–26.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Schönfelder G, Wittfoht W, Hopp H, Talsness CE, Paul M, Chahoud I . Parent bisphenol A accumulation in the human maternal-fetal-placental unit. Environ Health Perspect 2002; 110: A703–A707.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Yamada H, Furuta I, Kato EH, Kataoka S, Usuki Y, Kobashi G et al. Maternal serum and amniotic fluid bisphenol A concentrations in the early second trimester. Reprod Toxicol 2002; 16: 735–739.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Padmanabhan V, Siefert K, Ransom S, Johnson T, Pinkerton J, Anderson L et al. Maternal bisphenol-A levels at delivery: a looming problem? J Perinatol 2008; 28: 258–263.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Fernandez MF, Arrebola JP, Taoufiki J, Navalón A, Ballesteros O, Pulgar R et al. Bisphenol-A and chlorinated derivatives in adipose tissue of women. Reprod Toxicol 2007; 24: 259–264.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Nunez AA, Kannan K, Giesy JP, Fang J, Clemens LG . Effects of bisphenol A on energy balance and accumulation in brown adipose tissue in rats. Chemosphere 2001; 42: 917–922.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Ye X, Kuklenyik Z, Needham LL, Calafat AM . Measuring environmental phenols and chlorinated organic chemicals in breast milk using automated on-line column-switching-high performance liquid chromatography-isotope dilution tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2006; 831: 110–115.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Kuruto-Niwa R, Tateoka Y, Usuki Y, Nozawa R . Measurement of bisphenol A concentrations in human colostrum. Chemosphere 2007; 66: 1160–1164.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. CERHR. NTP-CERHR expert panel report on the reproductive and developmental toxicity of bisphenol A. National Toxicology Program, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, NC. 26 Nov. Available at: http://cerhr.niehs.nih.gov/chemicals/bisphenol/BPAFinalEPVF112607.pdf 2007.

  43. EFSA (European Food Safety Authority). 2007 opinion of the Scientific Panel on Food additives, flavourings, processing aids, and materials in contact with food (AFC) related to 2,2,-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)propane. Adopted on 20 November 2006. Available at: www.efsa.europa.eu/EFSA/efsa_locale-xhttp://www.efsa.europa.eu/EFSA/efsa_locale-1178620753812_1178620772817.htm.

  44. Markey CM, Luque EH, Munoz De Toro M, Sonnenschein C, Soto AM . In utero exposure to bisphenol A alters the development and tissue organization of the mouse mammary gland. Biol Reprod 2001; 65: 1215–1223.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Alonso-Magdalena P, Laribi O, Ropero AB, Fuentes E, Ripoll C, Soria B et al. Low doses of bisphenol A and diethylstilbestrol impair Ca2+ signals in pancreatic alpha-cells through a nonclassical membrane estrogen receptor within intact islets of Langerhans. Environ Health Perspect 2005; 113: 969–977.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Zoeller RT, Bansal R, Parris C . Bisphenol-A, an environmental contaminant that acts as a thyroid hormone receptor antagonist in vitro, increases serum thyroxine, and alters RC3/neurogranin expression in the developing rat brain. Endocrinology 2005; 146: 607–612.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Alonso-Magdalena P, Morimoto S, Ripoll C, Fuentes E, Nadal A . The estrogenic effect of bisphenol A disrupts pancreatic beta-cell function in vivo and induces insulin resistance. Environ Health Perspect 2006; 114: 106–112.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Hugo ER, Brandebourg TD, Woo JG, Loftus J, Alexander JW, Ben-Jonathan N . Bisphenol A at environmentally relevant doses inhibits adiponectin release from human adipose tissue explants and adipocytes. Environ Health Perspect 2008; 116: 1642–1647.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Takahashi O, Oishi, S . Disposition of orally administered 2, 2-Bis(4-hydroxyphenyl) propane (Bisphenol A) in pregnant rats and the placental transfer to fetuses. Environ Health Perspect 2000; 108: 931–935.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Coughtrie MW, Burchell B, Leakey JE, Hume R . The inadequacy of perinatal glucuronidation: immunoblot analysis of the developmental expression of individual UDP-glucuronosyltransferase isoenzymes in rat and human liver microsomes. Mol Pharmacol 1988; 34: 729–735.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Elsby R, Maggs JL, Ashby J, Park BK . Comparison of the modulatory effects of human and rat liver microsomal metabolism on the estrogenicity of bisphenol A: implications for extrapolation to humans. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2001; 297: 103–113.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Toyama Y, Suzuki-Toyota F, Maekawa M, Ito C, Toshimori K . Adverse effects of bisphenol A to spermiogenesis in mice and rats. Arch Histol Cytol 2004; 67: 373–381.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Timms BG, Howdeshell KL, Barton L, Bradley S, Richter CA, vom Saal FS . Estrogenic chemicals in plastic and oral contraceptives disrupt development of the fetal mouse prostate and urethra. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005; 102: 7014–7019.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Soto AM, Vandenberg LN, Maffini MV, Sonnenschein C . Does breast cancer start in the womb? Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2008; 102: 125–133.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  55. Tsutsumi O . Assessment of human contamination of estrogenic endocrine-distrupting chemicals and their risk for human reproduction. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2005; 93: 325–330.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Lang JM, Lieberman E, Cohen A . A comparison of risk factors for preterm labor and term small-for-gestational-age birth. Epidemiology 1996; 7: 369–376.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Golub MS, Collman GW, Foster PM, Kimmel CA, Rajpert-De Meyts E, Reiter EO et al. Public health implications of altered puberty timing. Pediatrics 2008; 121 (Suppl 3): S218–S230.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Herman-Giddens ME, Bourdony C, Slora E, Wasserman R . Early puberty: a cautionary tale. Pediatrics 2001; 107: 609–610.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Lang IA, Galloway TS, Scarlett A, Henley WE, Depledge M, Wallace RB et al. Association of urinary bisphenol A concentration with medical disorders and laboratory abnormalities in adults. JAMA 2008; 300: 1303–1310.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Elobeid MA, Allison DB . Putative environmental-endocrine disruptors and obesity: a review. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 2008; 15: 403–408.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  61. Newbold RR, Padilla-Banks E, Snyder RJ, Phillips TM, Jefferson WN . Developmental exposure to endocrine disruptors and the obesity epidemic. Reprod Toxicol 2007; 23: 290–296.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  62. Manikkam M, Crespi EJ, Doop DD, Herkimer C, Lee JS, Yu S et al. Fetal programming: prenatal testosterone excess leads to fetal growth retardation and postnatal catch-up growth in sheep. Endocrinology 2004; 145: 790–798.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Bamigboye AA, Morris J . Oestrogen supplementation, mainly diethylstilbestrol, for preventing miscarriages and other adverse pregnancy outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003, issue 3. Art. No. CD004353. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004353.

  64. Hardin BD, Bond GP, Sikov MR, Andrew FD, Beliles RP, Niemeier RW . Testing of selected workplace chemicals for teratogenic potential. Scand J Work Environ Health 1981; 7: 66–75.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Morrissey RE, George JD, Price CJ, Tyl RW, Marr MC, Kimmel CA . The developmental toxicity of bisphenol A in rats and mice. Fundam Appl Toxicol 1987; 8: 571–582.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Takagi H, Shibutani M, Masutomi N, Uneyama C, Takahashi N, Mitsumori K et al. Lack of maternal dietary exposure effects of bisphenol A and nonylphenol during the critical period for brain sexual differentiation on the reproductive/endocrine systems in later life. 2004; 78: 97–105.

  67. N.T.P. Teratologic evaluation of bisphenol A (CAS No. 80-05-7) administered to CD-I mice on gestational days 6 through 15. Department of Health and Human Services/National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. 1985.

  68. Kim JC, Shin HC, Cha SW, Koh WS, Chung MK, Han SS . Evaluation of developmental toxicity in rats exposed to the environmental estrogen bisphenol A during pregnancy. Life Sci 2001; 69: 2611–2625.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Savabieasfahani M, Kannan K, Astapova O, Evans NP, Padmanabhan V . Developmental programming: differential effects of prenatal exposure to bisphenol-A or methoxychlor on reproductive function. Endocrinology 2006; 147: 5956–5966.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Markey CM, Rubin BS, Soto AM, Sonnenschein C . Endocrine disruptors: from Wingspread to environmental developmental biology. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2002; 83: 235–244.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Ashby J, Odum J . Gene expression changes in the immature rat uterus: effects of uterotrophic and sub-uterotrophic doses of bisphenol A. Toxicol Sci 2004; 82: 458–467.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Schönfelder G, Flick B, Mayr E, Talsness C, Paul M, Chahoud I . In utero exposure to low doses of bisphenol A lead to long-term deleterious effects in the vagina. Neoplasia 2002; 4: 98–102.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  73. Suzuki A, Sugihara A, Uchida K, Sato T, Ohta Y, Katsu Y et al. Developmental effects of perinatal exposure to bisphenol-A and diethylstilbestrol on reproductive organs in female mice. Reprod Toxicol 2002; 16: 107–116.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Howdeshell KL, Hotchkiss AK, Thayer KA, Vandenbergh JG, vom Saal FS . Exposure to bisphenol A advances puberty. Nature 1999; 401: 763–764.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Honma S, Suzuki A, Buchanan DL, Katsu Y, Watanabe H, Iguchi T . Low dose effect of in utero exposure to bisphenol A and diethylstilbestrol on female mouse reproduction. Reprod Toxicol 2002; 16: 117–122.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Khurana S, Ranmal S, Ben-Jonathan N . Exposure of newborn male and female rats to environmental estrogens: delayed and sustained hyperprolactinemia and alterations in estrogen receptor expression. Endocrinology 2000; 141: 4512–4517.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Takeuchi T, Tsutsumi O, Ikezuki Y, Kamei Y, Osuga Y, Fujiwara T et al. Elevated serum bisphenol A levels under hyperandrogenic conditions may be caused by decreased UDP-glucuronosyltransferase activity. Endocr J 2006; 53: 485–491.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Takeuchi T, Tsutsumi O, Ikezuki Y, Takai Y, Taketani Y . Positive relationship between androgen and the endocrine disruptor, bisphenol A, in normal women and women with ovarian dysfunction. Endocr J 2004; 51: 165–169.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Hiroi H, Tsutsumi O, Takeuchi T, Momoeda M, Ikezuki Y, Okamura A . Differences in serum bisphenol a concentrations in premenopausal normal women and women with endometrial hyperplasia. Endocr J 2004; 51: 595–600.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Dodge JA, Glasebrook AL, Magee DE, Phillips DL, Sato M, Short LL et al. Environmental estrogens: effects on cholesterol lowering and bone in the ovariectomized rat. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1996; 59: 155–161.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Nieminen P, Lindström-Seppä P, Mustonen AM, Mussalo-Rauhamaa H, Kukkonen JV . Bisphenol A affects endocrine physiology and biotransformation enzyme activities of the field vole (Microtus agrestis). Gen Comp Endocrinol 2002; 126: 183–189.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Masuno H, Iwanami J, Kidani T, Sakayama K, Honda K . Bisphenol a accelerates terminal differentiation of 3T3-L1 cells into adipocytes through the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase pathway. Toxicol Sci 2005; 84: 319–327.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Gee GC, Payne-Sturges DC . Environmental health disparities: a framework integrating psychosocial and environmental concepts. Environ Health Perspect 2004; 112: 1645–1653.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Payne-Sturges D, Gee GC . National environmental health measures for minority and low-income populations: tracking social disparities in enviornmental health. Environ Res 2006; 102: 154–171.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Brown P . Race, class, and environmental health: a review and systematization of the literature. Environ Res 1995; 69: 15–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Block JP, Scribner RA, DeSalvo KB . Fast food, race/ethnicity, and income: a geographic analysis. Am J Prev Med 2004; 27: 211–217.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Baker EA, Schootman M, Barnidge E, Kelly C . The role of race and poverty in access to foods that enable individuals to adhere to dietary guidelines. Prev Chronic Dis 2006; 3: A76.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  88. Morland K, Filomena S . Disparities in the availability of fruits and vegetables between racially segregated urban neighbourhoods. Public Health Nutr 2007; 10: 1481–1489.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Nord M, Andrews M, Carlson S . Household Food Security in the United States, 2005 (ERR-29). US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service: Alexandria, VA, 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  90. Drewnowski A, Specter SE . Poverty and obesity: the role of energy density and energy costs. Am J Clin Nutr 2004; 79: 6–16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Algert SJ, Agrawal A, Lewis DS . Disparities in access to fresh produce in low-income neighborhoods in Los Angeles. Am J Prev Med 2006; 30: 365–370.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Gordon CJ . Role of environmental stress in the physiological response to chemical toxicants. Environ Res 2003; 92: 1–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Wolff MS, Teitelbaum SL, Windham G, Pinney SM, Britton JA, Chelimo C et al. Pilot study of urinary biomarkers of phytoestrogens, phthalates, and phenols in girls. Environ Health Perspect 2007; 115: 116–121.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Behrman R, Butler A . Preterm Birth: Causes Consequences and Prevention. Committee on Understanding Premature Birth and Assuring Health Outcomes, Institute of Medicine of the National Academies.. National Academies Press: Washington DC, 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  95. Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Curtin LR, McDowell MA, Tabak CJ, Flegal KM . Prevalence of overweight and obesity in the United States, 1999–2004. JAMA 2006; 295: 1549–1555.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Yu CK, Teoh TG, Robinson S . Obesity in pregnancy. BJOG 2006; 113: 1117–1125.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Davies MJ . Evidence for effects of weight on reproduction in women. Reprod Biomed Online 2006; 12: 552–561.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Frøen JF, Gardosi JO, Thurmann A, Francis A, Stray-Pedersen B . Restricted fetal growth in sudden intrauterine unexplained death. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2004; 83: 801–807.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Barker DJ, Eriksson JG, Forsén T, Osmond C . 2002) Fetal origins of adult disease: strength of effects and biological basis. Int J Epidemiol 2002; 31: 1235–1239.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Stocker CJ, Arch JR, Cawthorne MA . Fetal origins of insulin resistance and obesity. Proc Nutr Soc 2005; 64: 143–151.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Nathanielsz PW, Padmanabhan V . Editorial: Developmental origin of health and disease. J Physiology (Lond) 2006; 572: 3–4.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Emanuel I, Leisenring W, Williams MA, Kimpo C, Estee S, O'Brien W et al. The Washington State Intergenerational Study of Birth Outcomes: methodology and some comparisons of maternal birthweight and infant birthweight and gestation in four ethnic groups. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 1999; 13: 352–369.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Hoyert DL, Mathews TJ, Menacker F, Strobino DM, Guyer B . Annual summary of vital statistics: 2004. Pediatrics 2006; 117: 168–183.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Miniño AM, Heron MP, Murphy SL, Kochanek KD . Deaths: final data for 2004. Natl Vital Stat Rep 2007; 55: 1–119.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Martin JA, Hamilton BE, Sutton PD, Ventura SJ, Menacker F, Kirmeyer S et al. Births: final data for 2004. Nal Vital Stat Rep 2006; 55: 1–101.

    Google Scholar 

  106. US Department of Health and Human Services. Report of the Secretary's Task Force on Black and Minority Health: Infant Mortality and Low Birth Weight. et al. Volume VI DHHS: Washington, DC, 1986.

  107. Crews D, Willingham E, Skipper JK . Endocrine disruptors: present issues, future directions. Q Rev Biol 2000; 75: 243–260.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Maffini MV, Rubin BS, Sonnenschein C, Soto AM . Endocrine disruptors and reproductive health: the case of bisphenol-A. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2006; 254–255: 179–186.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This study was supported by Roadmap Grant 1P20RR020682-01 from the National Institute of Health and NICHD 1P50HD38986-01 from Michigan Interdisciplinary Center on Social Inequalities, Mind and Body.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Michael and Susan Dell Center for Advancement of Healthy Living, University of Texas School of Public Health, Austin Regional Campus, Austin, TX, USA

    N Ranjit

  2. School of Social Work, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

    K Siefert

  3. Department of Pediatrics and the Reproductive Sciences Program, School of Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

    V Padmanabhan

Authors
  1. N Ranjit
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. K Siefert
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. V Padmanabhan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to V Padmanabhan.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Ranjit, N., Siefert, K. & Padmanabhan, V. Bisphenol-A and disparities in birth outcomes: a review and directions for future research. J Perinatol 30, 2–9 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1038/jp.2009.90

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/jp.2009.90

Keywords

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links