Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Original Article
  • Published:

Toddler’s behavior and its impacts on exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers

Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology volume 27, pages 193–197 (2017)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

Children have higher polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) body burdens than adults, which may be related to hand-to-mouth behavior. We investigate associations between children’s behavior, including hand-to-mouth contacts, and markers of PBDE exposure. In addition, we investigate associations between characteristics of the home environment and exposure. Eighty-three children aged 12–36 months were recruited from North Carolina (2009–2010). Children provided blood and handwipes samples, which were analyzed for PBDEs. Parents completed questionnaires, providing demographic, behavioral, and environmental data. More active children had higher levels of PBDEs on their hands and in their bodies. For example, children who spent more time sleeping had lower exposures to PBDEs; each additional hour of sleep resulted in a 30% decrease in handwipe BDE-99 levels (P<0.001) and a 15% decrease in serum (P=0.03). After accounting for handwipe PBDE levels, children who licked their fingers while eating had higher serum PBDEs. Other behaviors were not consistently associated with serum levels. Playing with plastic toys was associated with higher handwipe levels of PBDEs, while frequent vacuuming decreased handwipe PBDE levels. Characteristics of the home environment generally were not associated with serum PBDEs. Our results suggest that certain aspects of children’s behavior and their environment impact exposure to PBDEs.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. de Wit CA . An overview of brominated flame retardants in the environment. Chemosphere 2002; 46: 583–624.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Costa LG, Giordano G, Tagliaferri S, Caglieri A, Mutti A . Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants: environmental contamination, human body burden and potential adverse health effects. Acta Biomed 2008; 79: 172–183.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. EPA US. Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) Action Plan. Available at: http://www.epagov/oppt/existingchemicals/pubs/actionplans/pbdes_ap_2009_1230_finalpdf (accessed on 10 September 2013).

  4. Toms LM, Sjodin A, Harden F, Hobson P, Jones R, Edenfield E et al. Serum polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) levels are higher in children (2-5 years of age) than in infants and adults. Environ Health Perspect 2009; 117: 1461–1465.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Sjodin A, Schecter A, Jones R, Wong LY, Colacino JA, Malik-Bass N et al. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers, 2,2',4,4',5,5'-hexachlorobiphenyl (PCB-153), and p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p'-DDE) concentrations in sera collected in 2009 from Texas children. Environ Sci Technol 2014; 48: 8196–8202.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Cohen Hubal EA, Sheldon LS, Burke JM, McCurdy TR, Berry MR, Rigas ML et al. Children's exposure assessment: a review of factors influencing Children's exposure, and the data available to characterize and assess that exposure. Environ Health Perspect 2000; 108: 475–486.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. US EPA Child-Specific Exposure Factors Handbook (Final Report). National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development (EPA/600/R-08/135): Washington, DC. 2008.

  8. Moya J, Bearer CF, Etzel RA . Children's behavior and physiology and how it affects exposure to environmental contaminants. Pediatrics 2004; 113: 996–1006.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Charney E, Sayre J, Coulter M . Increased lead absorption in inner city children: where does the lead come from? Pediatrics 1980; 65: 226–231.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Bellinger D, Leviton A, Rabinowitz M, Needleman H, Waternaux C . Correlates of low-level lead exposure in urban children at 2 years of age. Pediatrics 1986; 77: 826–833.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Lanphear BP, Weitzman M, Winter NL, Eberly S, Yakir B, Tanner M et al. Lead-contaminated house dust and urban children's blood lead levels. Am J Public Health 1996; 86: 1416–1421.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Freeman NC, Sheldon L, Jimenez M, Melnyk L, Pellizzari E, Berry M . Contribution of children's activities to lead contamination of food. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 2001; 11: 407–413.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Driver J, Ross J, Pandian M, Assaf N, Osimitz T, Holden L . Evaluation of predictive algorithms used for estimating potential postapplication, nondietary ingestion exposures to pesticides associated with children's hand-to-mouth behavior. J Toxicol Environ Health A 2013; 76: 556–586.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Black K, Shalat SL, Freeman NC, Jimenez M, Donnelly KC, Calvin JA . Children's mouthing and food-handling behavior in an agricultural community on the US/Mexico border. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 2005; 15: 244–251.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Akland GG, Pellizzari ED, Hu Y, Roberds M, Rohrer CA, Leckie JO et al. Factors influencing total dietary exposures of young children. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 2000; 10: 710–722.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Stapleton HM, Eagle S, Sjodin A, Webster TF . Serum PBDEs in a North Carolina toddler cohort: associations with handwipes, house dust, and socioeconomic variables. Environ Health Perspect 2012; 120: 1049–1054.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Stapleton HM, Kelly SM, Allen JG, McClean MD, Webster TF . Measurement of polybrominated diphenyl ethers on hand wipes: estimating exposure from hand-to-mouth contact. Environ Sci Technol 2008; 42: 3329–3334.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Allen JG, McClean MD, Stapleton HM, Webster TF . Critical factors in assessing exposure to PBDEs via house dust. Environ Int 2008; 34: 1085–1091.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Sjodin A, Wong LY, Jones RS, Park A, Zhang Y, Hodge C et al. Serum concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polybrominated biphenyl (PBB) in the United States population: 2003-2004. Environ Sci Technol 2008; 42: 1377–1384.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Watkins DJ, McClean MD, Fraser AJ, Weinberg J, Stapleton HM, Sjodin A et al. Exposure to PBDEs in the office environment: evaluating the relationships between dust, handwipes, and serum. Environ Health Perspect 2011; 119: 1247–1252.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Chen SJ, Ma YJ, Wang J, Chen D, Luo XJ, Mai BX . Brominated flame retardants in children's toys: concentration, composition, and children's exposure and risk assessment. Environ Sci Technol 2009; 43: 4200–4206.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Ionas AC, Dirtu AC, Anthonissen T, Neels H, Covaci A . Downsides of the recycling process: harmful organic chemicals in children's toys. Environ Int 2014; 65C: 54–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Tulve NS, Suggs JC, McCurdy T, Cohen Hubal EA, Moya J . Frequency of mouthing behavior in young children. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 2002; 12: 259–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

Funding for this study was provided by a research grant from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) grant R01 ES016099. TFW was supported in part by R01ES015829. KH was supported through a donation provided by Fred and Alice Stanback. The views expressed in this document are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Additional thanks are extended to all the study participants.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA

    Kate Hoffman & Heather M Stapleton

  2. Department of Environmental Health, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

    Thomas F Webster

  3. Division for Laboratory Sciences, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, Atlanta, Georgia, USA

    Andreas Sjödin

Authors
  1. Kate Hoffman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Thomas F Webster
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Andreas Sjödin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Heather M Stapleton
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kate Hoffman.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Hoffman, K., Webster, T., Sjödin, A. et al. Toddler’s behavior and its impacts on exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 27, 193–197 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/jes.2016.11

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/jes.2016.11

Keywords

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links