Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Original Communication
  • Published:

Long-term effect of a plant-based diet on magnesium status during pregnancy

Abstract

Objective: To compare dietary magnesium intake and magnesium concentrations in serum, red blood cells (RBC) and urine during pregnancy of women habitually following a long-term plant-based diet and of women following an average Western (control) diet.

Design: Prospective study during pregnancy.

Setting: Giessen, Germany.

Subjects: Healthy pregnant women (n=108) in their 9–12th, 20–22nd and 36–38th gestational week habitually following a plant-based diet for more than 3 y or an average Western diet. The vegetarians were subdivided into ovo-lacto vegetarians (n=27) and low-meat eaters (n=43).

Results: Significant higher dietary magnesium intakes were observed in pregnant women consuming a plant-based diet (508±14 mg/day for ovo–lacto vegetarians, P<0.001 and 504±11 mg/day for low-meat eaters, P<0.001) than in pregnant women consuming a control diet (412±9 mg/day). Serum magnesium concentrations were similar in all diet groups whereas RBC magnesium was slightly higher in low-meat eaters than in controls (P=0.058). Urinary magnesium excretion was higher in ovo-lacto vegetarians (P=0.023), followed by low-meat eaters (P=0.017) when compared to the control group. During the third trimester of pregnancy, the frequency and the occurrence of calf cramps was lower in the plant-based diet group than in the control group (P=0.004 and 0.008).

Conclusions: Owing to a higher dietary magnesium intake confirmed by higher urinary magnesium excretion, habitual plant-based diets result in a slightly improved magnesium status during pregnancy and reduce the frequency of calf cramps during the third trimester of pregnancy compared to an average Western diet. Therefore, plant-based diets during pregnancy can be recommended with regard to magnesium supply.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Rent or buy this article

Prices vary by article type

from$1.95

to$39.95

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Almonte RA, Heath DL, Whitehall J, Russell MJ, Patole S & Vink R (1999): Gestational magnesium deficiency is deleterious to fetal outcome. Biol. Neonate 76, 26–32.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • American Dietetic Association & Dietitians of Canada (2003): Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: vegetarian diets. Can. J. Diet Pract. Res. 64, 62–81.

  • Baltzer G & Daume E (1976): [Magnesium levels in the blood during pregnancy]. Verh. Dtsch. Ges. Inn. Med. 82 (Part 1, 880–882.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bardicef M, Bardicef O, Sorokin Y, Altura BM, Altura BT, Cotton DB & Resnick LM (1995): Extracellular and intracellular magnesium depletion in pregnancy and gestational diabetes. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 172, 1009–1013.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barr SI & Broughton TM (2000): Relative weight, weight loss efforts and nutrient intakes among health-conscious vegetarian, past vegetarian and nonvegetarian women ages 18 to 50. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 19, 781–788.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bartels H & Cikes M (1969): Über Chromogene der Kreatininbestimmung nach Jaffe. [Chromogens in the creatinine determination of Jaffe]. Clin. Chim. Acta. 26, 1–10.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Black RE (2001): Micronutrients in pregnancy. Br. J. Nutr. 85 (Suppl 2), S193–S197.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bohn T, Davidsson L, Walczyk T & Hurrell RF (2004a): Phytic acid added to white-wheat bread inhibits fractional apparent magnesium absorption in humans. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 79, 418–423.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bohn T, Walczyk T, Davidsson L, Pritzkow W, Klingbeil P, Vogl J & Hurrell RF (2004b): Comparison of urinary monitoring, faecal monitoring and erythrocyte analysis of stable isotope labels to determine magnesium absorption in human subjects. Br. J. Nutr. 91, 113–120.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burnett RW, Christiansen TF, Covington AK, Fogh-Andersen N, Kulpmann WR, Lewenstam A, Maas AHJ, Muller-Plathe O, Sachs C, Andersen OS, VanKessel AL & Zijlstra WG (2000): IFCC recommended reference method for the determination of the substance concentration of ionized calcium in undiluted serum, plasma or whole blood. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 38, 1301–1314.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coudray C, Bellanger J, Castiglia-Delavaud C, Remesy C, Vermorel M & Rayssignuier Y (1997): Effect of soluble or partly soluble dietary fibres supplementation on absorption and balance of calcium, magnesium, iron and zinc in healthy young men. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 51, 375–380.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coudray C, Bellanger J, Vermorel M, Sinaud S, Wils D, Feillet-Coudray C, Brandolini M, Bouteloup-Demange C & Rayssiguier Y (2003a): Two polyol, low digestible carbohydrates improve the apparent absorption of magnesium but not of calcium in healthy young men. J. Nutr. 133, 90–93.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coudray C, Demigne C & Rayssiguier Y (2003b): Effects of dietary fibers on magnesium absorption in animals and humans. J. Nutr. 133, 1–4.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elin RJ (1994): Magnesium: the fifth but forgotten electrolyte. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 102, 616–622.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Federal Institute for Health Protection of Consumers and Veterinary Medicine (1999): The german food code and nutrient data base (BLS II.3): conception, structure and documentation of the data base blsdat. Berlin, Germany: B Publications.

  • Feillet-Coudray C, Coudray C, Tressol JC, Pepin D, Mazur A, Abrams SA & Rayssiguier Y (2002): Exchangeable magnesium pool masses in healthy women: effects of magnesium supplementation. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 75, 72–78.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Giddens JB, Krug SK, Tsang RC, Guo S, Miodovnik M & Prada JA (2000): Pregnant adolescent and adult women have similarly low intakes of selected nutrients. J. Am. Diet Assoc. 100, 1334–1340.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Golf S (1994): Transport of magnesium through membranes. Magnesium-B 16, 12–18.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Golf S (1997): Transport von Magnesium durch Zellmembranen [Magnesium transport throughout cell membrane]. J. Mineralstoff. 4, 23–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greger JL (1999): Nondigestible carbohydrates and mineral bioavailability. J. Nutr. 129, 1434S–1435S.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffmann I, Groeneveld MJ, Boeing H, Koebnick C, Golf S, Katz N & Leitzmann C (2001): Giessen Wholesome Nutrition Study: relation between a health-conscious diet and blood lipids. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 55, 887–895.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffmann I, Kohl M, Groeneveld M & Leitzmann C (1994): Development and validation of a new instrument to measure food intake. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 59, 284S.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hurrell RF (2003): Influence of vegetable protein sources on trace element and mineral bioavailability. J. Nutr. 133, 2973S–2977S.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koebnick C, Heins UA, Hoffmann I, Dagnelie PC & Leitzmann C (2001): Folate status during pregnancy in women is improved by long-term high vegetable intake compared with the average western diet. J. Nutr. 131, 733–739.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koerber K, Männle T & Leitzmann C (2004): Wholesome Nutrition: Concept of a Timely and Sustainable Diet. Stuttgart: Haug Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kovacs L, Molnar BG, Huhn E & Bodis L (1988): Magnesium substitution in pregnancy. A prospective, randomized double-blind study. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd. 48, 595–600.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kulpmann WR (1992): [Determination of electrolytes in serum and plasma]. Wien Klin. Wochenschr. Suppl. 192, 37–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lakshmanan FL, Rao RB, Kim WW & Kelsay JL (1984): Magnesium intakes, balances, and blood levels of adults consuming self-selected diets. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 40, 1380–1389.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Makrides M & Crowther CA (2001): Magnesium supplementation in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. CD000937.

  • Mattar F & Sibai BM (1999): Prevention of preeclampsia. Semin. Perinatol. 23, 58–64.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mende HE, Reuter W & Koch G (1977): Magnesium levels in serum and erythrocytes during pregnancy, delivery and puerperium. Zentralbl. Gynakol. 99, 330–336.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miyazawa E & Yoshida T (1991): Effects of dietary levels of phytate and inorganic phosphate on phytate breakdown and absorption of calcium and magnesium in rats. Nutr. Res. 11, 797–806.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Paschen K (1978): Die Bestimmung von Magnesium in Erythrozyten. Methodik und klinische Bedeutung in Diagnostik und Therapiekontrolle [Analysis of magnesium in erythrocytes. Methods and clinical meaning in diagnosis and therapy control]. Krankenhausarzt 51, 289–291.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pathak P, Kapoor SK, Kapil U & Dwivedi SN (2003): Serum magnesium level among pregnant women in a rural community of Haryana State, India. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 57, 1504–1506.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pitkin RM (1983): Endocrine regulation of calcium homeostasis during pregnancy. Clin. Perinatol. 10, 575–592.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Projektträgergemeinschaft Forschung im Dienste der Gesundheit (1991): Die Nationale Verzehrstudie. Ergebnisse der Basisauswertung [The National Food Survery: the results of the basic evaluation]. Schriftenreihe zum Programm der Bundesregierung, Bonn, Germany.

  • Rimbach G & Pallauf J (1999): Effect of dietary phytate on magnesium bioavailability and liver oxidant status in growing rats. Food Chem. Toxicol. 37, 37–45.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Riss P, Bartl W & Jelincic D (1983): Clinical aspects and treatment of calf muscle cramps during pregnancy. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd. 43, 329–331.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers I & Emmett P (1998): Diet during pregnancy in a population of pregnant women in South West England. ALSPAC Study Team. Avon Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 52, 246–250.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spätling L, Disch G & Classen HG (1989): Magnesium in pregnant women and the newborn. Magnes. Res. 2, 271–280.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spätling L, Kunz P, Huch R & Huch A (1985): Magnesium and calcium excretion during pregnancy. Magnes. Bull. 3, 91–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner RE, Langkamp-Henken B, Littell RC, Lukowski MJ & Suarez MF (2003): Comparing nutrient intake from food to the estimated average requirements shows middle- to upper-income pregnant women lack iron and possibly magnesium. J. Am. Diet Assoc. 103, 461–466.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walmsley TA & Fowler RT (1981): Optimum use of 8-hydroxyquinoline in plasma calcium determinations. Clin. Chem. 27, 1782.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • White R & Frank E (1994): Health effects and prevalence of vegetarianism. West J. Med. 160, 465–470.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wolters MG, Schreuder HA, van den Heuvel G, van Lonkhuijsen HJ, Hermus RJ & Voragen AG (1993): A continuous in vitro method for estimation of the bioavailability of minerals and trace elements in foods: application to breads varying in phytic acid content. Br. J. Nutr. 69, 849–861.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wynn A & Wynn M (1988): Magnesium and other nutrient deficiencies as possible causes of hypertension and low birthweight. Nutr. Health 6, 69–88.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank the pregnant women who agreed to participate in the study. We gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the Eden Foundation, Bad Soden, Germany and the Stoll Vita Foundation, Waldshut, Germany.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to C Koebnick.

Additional information

Guarantor: C Koebnick.

Contributors: CK, RL, UAH, IH, and CL contributed to the design of the study. CK, UAH, and RL were available for the participants during the study period in the study center. CK, UAH, TH, and ALG were responsible for the data management, statistical analysis, and interpretation of the data. SG, NK contributed to the laboratory analysis. CK, UAH, TH, and ALG performed the literature research. All authors contributed to the conduct of the study, data collection and writing of the manuscript. CL is the principal investigator and contributed to all parts of the study.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Koebnick, C., Leitzmann, R., García, A. et al. Long-term effect of a plant-based diet on magnesium status during pregnancy. Eur J Clin Nutr 59, 219–225 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602062

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602062

Keywords

Search

Quick links