1. ¹Institute of Food Research, Norwich Research Park, Colney Lane, Norwich, UK
2. ²Procter Department of Food Science, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK

Correspondence: PA Kroon, Nutrition Division, Institute of Food Research, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UA, UK. E-mail: paul.kroon@bbsrc.ac.uk

Guarantors: PA Kroon and AJ Day

Contributors: MSD and AJD designed the intervention; MSD supervised the intervention and prepared extracted samples; MSD and FM performed the chromatography and mass spectrometry; MSD, AJD, RB and FM interpreted the data; AJD and PAK wrote the manuscript. All contributors read and commented on the manuscript.

Received 9 May 2003; Revised 20 August 2003; Accepted 15 September 2003.

Abstract

Objective: To determine the absorption, excretion and metabolism of kaempferol in humans.

Design: A pharmacokinetic study of kaempferol from endive over 24 h.

Subjects: Four healthy males and four healthy females.

Results: Kaempferol, from a relatively low dose (9 mg), was absorbed from endive with a mean maximum plasma concentration of 0.1 M, at a time of 5.8 h, indicating absorption from the distal section of the small intestine and/or the colon. Although a 7.5-fold interindividual variation between the highest and lowest maximum plasma concentration was observed, most individuals showed remarkably consistent pharmacokinetic profiles. This contrasts with profiles for other flavonoids that are absorbed predominantly from the large intestine (eg rutin). An average of 1.9% of the kaempferol dose was excreted in 24 h. Most subjects also showed an early absorption peak, probably corresponding to kaempferol-3-glucoside, present at a level of 14% in the endive. Kaempferol-3-glucuronide was the major compound detected in plasma and urine. Quercetin was not detected in plasma or urine indicating a lack of phase I hydroxylation of kaempferol.

Conclusions: Kaempferol is absorbed more efficiently than quercetin in humans even at low oral doses. The predominant form in plasma is a 3-glucuronide conjugate, and interindividual variation in absorption and excretion is low, suggesting that urinary kaempferol could be used as a biomarker for exposure.

Sponsorship: Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research council for core strategic funding and the University of Leeds for a departmental fellowship (AJD).