Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Original Communication
  • Published:

Lower glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) response but similar glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), glycaemic, and insulinaemic response to ancient wheat compared to modern wheat depends on processing

European Journal of Clinical Nutrition volume 57, pages 1254–1261 (2003)Cite this article

Abstract

Objective: To test the hypothesis that bread made from the ancient wheat Einkorn (Triticum monococcum) reduces the insulin and glucose responses through modulation of the gastrointestinal responses of glucose-dependent insulinotrophic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) compared to the responses to bread of modern wheat (Triticum aestivum).

Design: The 3-h postprandial insulinaemic, glycaemic, GIP, and GLP-1 responses to bread made from Einkorn were compared to responses to a traditional Danish wheat loaf. The bread from Einkorn was prepared by 3 different processing methods: leavening with honey–salt added, leavening crushed whole grain, and conventional leavening with yeast added. Bread made from modern wheat was prepared by conventional leavening with yeast added.

Subjects: A total of 11 healthy young men.

Results: The postprandial GIP response was significantly (P<0.001) reduced by the Einkorn breads processed with honey–salt leavening and by using crushed whole grain bread compared to the yeast leavened bread made from modern wheat or from Einkorn. No significant differences were found in the responses of GLP-1, insulin or glucose.

Conclusion: Einkorn honey–salt leavened and Einkorn whole grain bread elicit a reduced gastrointestinal response of GIP compared to conventional yeast bread. No differences were found in the glycaemic, insulinaemic and GLP-1 responses. Processing of starchy foods such as wheat may be a powerful tool to modify the postprandial GIP response.

Sponsorship: The Directorate for Food, Fisheries and Agri Business, the Danish Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Fisheries and Agronomic Businesses.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abdel-Aal ESM, Hucl P, Sosulski FW & Bhirud PR (1997): Kernel, milling and baking properties of spring-type spelt and Einkorn wheats. J. Cereal Sci. 26, 363–370.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bach Knudsen KE (1997): Carbohydrate and lignin contents of plant materials used in animal feeding. Animal Feed Sci. Technol. 67, 319–338.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Björck I, Liljeberg H & Ostman E (2000): Low glycaemic-index foods. Br. J. Nutr. 83 (Suppl), S149–S155.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brand Miller J, Pang E & Bramall L (1992): Rice:a high or low glycemic index food. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 56, 1034–1036.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buyken AE, Toeller M, Heitkamp G, Karamanos B, Rottiers B, Muggeo M & Fuller JH (2001): Glycemic index in the diet of European outpatients with type 1 diabetes: relations to glycated hemoglobin and serum lipids. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 73, 574–581.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Daly ME, Vale C, Walker M, Alberti KGMM & Mathers JC (1997): Dietary carbohydrates and insulin sensitivity: a review of the evidence and clinical implications. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 66, 1072–1085.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Darwiche G, Östman EM, Liljeberg HGM, Kallinen N, Björgell O & Björck IME (2001): Measurements of the gastric emptying rate by use of ultrasonography: studies in humans using bread with added sodium propionate. Am. J.Clin. Nutr. 74, 254–258.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • D'Egidio MG, Nardi S & Vallega V (1993): Grain, flour and dough characteristics of selected strains of diploid wheat Triticum monococcum L. Cereal Chem. 70, 298–303.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Englyst KN, Englyst HN, Hudson GJ, Cole TJ & Cummings JH (1999): Rapidly available glucose in foods. A measurement in vitro that reflects the glycemic response. Am. J. Clin Nutr. 69, 448–454.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • FAO/WHO (1998): Expert consultation. Carbohydrates in Human nutrition, FAO, Food and Nutrition Series No. 66. Rome, Italy: World Health Organization/Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.

  • Flint A, Raben A, Astrup A & Holst JJ (1998): Glucagon-like peptide-1 promotes satiety and suppresses energy intake in humans. J. Clin. Invest. 101, 515–520.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gutzwiller JP, Göke B, Drewe J et al (1999): Glucagon-like peptide-1: a potent regulator of food intake in humans. Gut 44, 81–86.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Holst JJ (1997): Enteroglucagon. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 59, 257–271.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Holt S, Brand J, Soveny C & Hansky J (1992): Relationship of satiety to postprandial glycaemic, insulin and cholecystokinin responses. Appetite 18, 129–141.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krarup T, Madsbad S, Moody AJ et al (1983): Diminished gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP) response to a meal in newly diagnosed type I (insulin dependent) diabetics. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 56, 1306–1312.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Larsen HN, Christensen C, Rasmussen OW et al (1996): Influence of parboling and physico-chemical characteristics of rice on the glycaemic index in non-insulin-dependent diabetic subjecs. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 50, 22–27.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lavin JH, Wittert GA, Andrews J et al (1998): Interaction of insulin, glucagon-like peptide 1, gastric inhibitory polypeptide, and appetite in response to intraduodenal carbohydrate. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 68, 591–598.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liljeberg H & Björck I (1994): Bioavailability of starch in bread products, postprandial glucose and insulin responses in healthy subjects and in vitro resistant starch content. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 48, 151–163.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liljeberg H & Björck I (1996): Delayed gastric emptying rate as a potential mechanism for lowered glycemia after eating sourdough bread: studies in humans and rats using test products with added organic acids or an organic salt. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 64, 886–893.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miyawaki K, Yamada Y, Jomori T et al (2001): Inhibition of GIP signalling prevents obesity. Diabetes 50 (Suppl 2), A83–A84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Näslund E, Barkeling B, King N et al (1999): Energy intake and appetite are suppressed by glucagon-like peptide-1 in obese men. Int. J. Obesity 23, 304–311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Food Agency (Levnedsmiddelstyrrelsen) (1996): In The Composition of Foods, 4th edition, eds A Møller & E Saxholt Levnedsmiddelstyrrelsen: The Danish and Food Administration.

  • O'Dea K, Nestel MD & Antonoff L (1980): Physical factors influencing postprandial glucose and insulin responses to starch. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 33, 760–765.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ørskov C, Rabenhøj L, Kofod H, Wettergren A & Holst JJ (1994): Production and secretion of amidated and glycine extended glucagonlike peptidel (GLP1) in man. Diabetes 43, 535–539.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peracchi M, Santangelo A, Conte D et al (2000): The physical state of a meal affects hormone release and postprandial thermogenesis. Br. J. Nutr. 83, 623–628.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Raben A, Holst JJ, Christensen NJ & Astrup A (1996): Determinants of postprandial appetite sensations: macronutrient intake and glucose metabolism. Int. J. Obesity. 20, 161–169.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen O, Winther E & Hermansen K (1991): Glycaemic response to different types of bread in insulin-dependent diabetic subjects (IDDM): studies at constant insulinaemia. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 45, 97–103.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thomsen C, Rasmussen O, Lousen T, Fenselau S, Schrezenmeir J & Hermansen K (1999): Differential effects of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids on postprandial lipemia and incretin responses in healthy subjects. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 69, 1135–1143.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vallega V (1992): Agronomic performance and breeding value of selected strains of diploid wheat, Triticum monococcum. Euphytica 61, 13–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolever TMS (1990): Relationship between dietary fibre content and composition in food and the glycemic index. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 51, 72–75.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wolever TMS & Jenkins DJA (1986): The use of the glycemic index in predicting the blood glucose response to mixed meals. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 43, 167–172.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yip RG & Wolfe MM (2000): GIP biology and fat metabolism. Life Sci. 66, 91–103.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank the Aurion Bakery, Hjørring, Denmark and Valsemøllen, Esbjerg, Denmark for providing the Einkorn and wheat flour for the breads, and Eva Lydeking Olsen for skillfully baking of the Einkorn whole grain breads. We thank Dr Knud Erik Back Knudsen, The Danish Agricultural Research Center, Foulum, for providing the values for dietary fibre and Trine Rasmussen for excellent technical assistance.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. From The Research Department of Human Nutrition, The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Frederiksberg, Denmark

    S Bakhøj, A Flint & I Tetens

  2. The Department of Medical Physiology, The Panum Institute, University of Copenhagen, Denmark

    J J Holst

Authors
  1. S Bakhøj
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. A Flint
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. J J Holst
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. I Tetens
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Guarantor: I Tetens.

Contributors: SB codeveloped the study design and was involved in subject recruitment, data collection, statistical analysis and drafted the first manuscript. AF codeveloped the study design, was involved in data collection and the statistical analyses and commented on the first draft of the paper. JJH codeveloped the study design, was involved in the analysis of the gut hormones and commented on the first draft of the paper. IT conceived the idea of the study, codeveloped it into a project. IT was involved in the data collection, writing the first draft and corefined it into the final draft. All contributors participated in the development of the paper.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to I Tetens.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bakhøj, S., Flint, A., Holst, J. et al. Lower glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) response but similar glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), glycaemic, and insulinaemic response to ancient wheat compared to modern wheat depends on processing. Eur J Clin Nutr 57, 1254–1261 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601680

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601680

Keywords

Search

Advanced search

Quick links