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From sequence to phenotype: reverse genetics in drosophila melanogaster

Nature Reviews Genetics volume 3, pages 189–198 (2002)Cite this article

Key Points

  • Strategies for disrupting the function of a gene, the sequence of which is known, fall into two classes: random mutagenesis, followed by molecular identification of desired mutations; and directed disruption of gene function. Methods for both strategies have been developed for reverse genetics in Drosophila melanogaster.

  • Denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography can be used to identify single base-pair changes in a PCR product. This allows specific genes to be screened for sequence changes that are generated with a standard chemical mutagenesis.

  • P-transposable elements have been engineered to be important tools for insertional mutagenesis in Drosophila. Several thousand single-insert lines are now available from public stock centres.

  • If a P-element lies near a gene of interest, strategies such as imprecise excision and local transposition can often be used to generate mutations in the gene.

  • A method of targeted gene replacement in Drosophila has recently been developed. This method allows defined mutations in specific genes to be made.

  • Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) has been shown to be a potent inhibitor of gene expression through a process termed RNA interference (RNAi). RNAi has been shown in Drosophila cell culture, in embryos injected with dsRNA and in individuals expressing an inverted repeat RNA.

Abstract

There has been a long history of innovation and development of tools for gene discovery and genetic analysis in Drosophila melanogaster. This includes methods to induce mutations and to screen for those mutations that disrupt specific processes, methods to map mutations genetically and physically, and methods to clone and characterize genes at the molecular level. Modern genetics also requires techniques to do the reverse — to disrupt the functions of specific genes, the sequences of which are already known. This is the process referred to as reverse genetics. During recent years, some valuable new methods for conducting reverse genetics in Drosophila have been developed.

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Figure 1: P-element constructs used for reverse genetics in Drosophila.
Figure 2: P-element mobilization mutagenesis.
Figure 3: Generation of deletions by hybrid element insertion.
Figure 4: Targeted gene replacement in Drosophila.
Figure 5: RNA interference in Drosophila.

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Acknowledgements

We thank Y. Rong and K. Golic for communicating unpublished results. M.D.A. was supported by a postdoctoral fellowship from the American Cancer Society.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biology and Program in Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, CB 3280, 303 Fordham Hall, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 27599, North Carolina, USA

    Melissa D. Adams & Jeff J. Sekelsky

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DATABASES

LocusLink 

abnormal wing discs

Dicer

pugilist

rosy

white

FURTHER INFORMATION

Berkeley Drosophila Genome Project

Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center

Drosophila Virtual Library 

Genome, proteome and the quest for a full structure–function description of an organism 

European Drosophila Genome Project

Exelixis, Inc. EP flyStation

FlyBase

P-element Gene Disruption Project

Szeged P-insertion Mutant Stock Center

Glossary

HYPOMORPHIC

A partial loss-of-function allele, sometimes called weak or leaky.

HEMIZYGOUS

A diploid genotype that has only one copy of a particular gene, as in X-chromosome genes in a male, or when the homologous chromosome carries a deletion.

COMPOUND HETEROZYGOUS

A diploid genotype in which the two copies of a gene carry different mutations.

ENHANCER-TRAP CONSTRUCT

A transgenic construct used to identify genes that are expressed in specific tissues. When the construct inserts near a tissue-specific enhancer, the weak promoter on the construct comes under the control of the enhancer, resulting in tissue-specific expression of the reporter gene.

PLASMID RESCUE

A method for cloning DNA that flanks a transgenic construct. The construct carries a plasmid backbone and an antibiotic resistance gene. Genomic DNA from a transgenic line is restricted, circularized and transformed into bacteria. After selection for antibiotic resistance, plasmid DNA is recovered and sequenced.

WHITE MINI-GENE

A copy of the white gene in which non-essential sequences have been removed. In mini- white, either a heterologous promoter is used, or some of the cis-regulatory region is removed.

DOSAGE COMPENSATION

The process of compensating for differences in gene dosage between the sexes of organisms that use a chromosomal basis of sex determination. In Drosophila, males have one X chromosome, whereas females have two X chromosomes. Dosage compensation results in the increased expression of X-linked genes in males.

INVERSE PCR

A method for cloning DNA that flanks a known sequence. Genomic DNA is digested and ligated into circles, and is then subjected to PCR. Primers correspond to the known sequence, but point out from this sequence. In a circle that contains the known sequence, the unknown flanking sequence will be amplified.

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Adams, M., Sekelsky, J. From sequence to phenotype: reverse genetics in drosophila melanogaster. Nat Rev Genet 3, 189–198 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg752

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