Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Review
  • Published:

Understanding the development and function of T follicular helper cells

Abstract

A fundamental function of T helper (Th) cells is to regulate B-cell proliferation and immunoglobulin class switching, especially in the germinal centers. Th1 and Th2 lineages of CD4+ T cells have long been considered to play an essential role in helping B cells by promoting the production immunoglobulin G2a (IgG2a) and IgG1/IgE, respectively. Recently, it has become clear that a subset CD4+ T cells, named T follicular helper (Tfh) cells, is critical to B-cell response induction. In this review, we summarize the latest advances in our understanding of the regulation of Tfh cell differentiation, the relationship of Tfh cells to other CD4+ T-cell lineages, and the role of Tfh cells in health and disease.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1
Figure 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Dong C, Flavell RA . Th1 and Th2 cells . Curr Opin Hematol 2001 ; 8 : 47 – 51 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Glimcher LH, Murphy KM . Lineage commitment in the immune system: the T helper lymphocyte grows up . Genes Dev 2000 ; 14 : 1693 – 1711 .

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Dong C . TH17 cells in development: an updated view of their molecular identity and genetic programming . Nat Rev Immunol 2008 ; 8 : 337 – 348 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Wing K, Sakaguchi S . Regulatory T cells exert checks and balances on self tolerance and autoimmunity . Nat Immunol 2010 ; 11 : 7 – 13 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. McHeyzer-Williams LJ, McHeyzer-Williams MG . Antigen-specific memory B cell development . Annu Rev Immunol 2005 ; 23 : 487 – 513 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Vinuesa CG, Tangye SG, Moser B, Mackay CR . Follicular B helper T cells in antibody responses and autoimmunity . Nat Rev Immunol 2005 ; 5 : 853 – 865 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Dullaers M, Li D, Xue Y, Ni L, Gayet I, Morita R et al . A T cell-dependent mechanism for the induction of human mucosal homing immunoglobulin A-secreting plasmablasts . Immunity 2009 ; 30 : 120 – 129 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Hsu HC, Yang P, Wang J, Wu Q, Myers R, Chen J et al . Interleukin 17-producing T helper cells and interleukin 17 orchestrate autoreactive germinal center development in autoimmune BXD2 mice . Nat Immunol 2008 ; 9 : 166 – 175 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Haynes NM, Allen CDC, Lesley R, Ansel KM, Killeen N, Cyster JG . Role of CXCR5 and CCR7 in follicular Th cell positioning and appearance of a programmed cell death gene-1high germinal center-associated subpopulation . J Immunol 2007 ; 179 : 5099 – 5108 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Junt T, Fink K, Forster R, Senn B, Lipp M, Muramatsu M et al . CXCR5-dependent seeding of follicular niches by B and Th cells augments antiviral B cell responses . J Immunol 2005 ; 175 : 7109 – 7116 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Akiba H, Takeda K, Kojima Y, Usui Y, Harada N, Yamazaki T et al . The role of ICOS in the CXCR5+ follicular B helper T cell maintenance in vivo . J Immunol 2005 ; 175 : 2340 – 2348 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Spolski R, Leonard WJ . Interleukin-21: basic biology and implications for cancer and autoimmunity . Annu Rev Immunol 2008 ; 26 : 57 – 79 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Vinuesa CG, Cook MC, Angelucci C, Athanasopoulos V, Rui L, Hill KM et al . A RING-type ubiquitin ligase family member required to repress follicular helper T cells and autoimmunity . Nature 2005 ; 435 : 452 – 458 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Velardi A, Mingari MC, Moretta L, Grossi CE . Functional analysis of cloned germinal center CD4+ cells with natural killer cell-related features. Divergence from typical T helper cells . J Immunol 1986 ; 137 : 2808 – 2813 .

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Kim CH, Rott LS, Clark-Lewis I, Campbell DJ, Wu L, Butcher EC . Subspecialization of CXCR5+ T cells: B helper activity is focused in a germinal center-localized subset of CXCR5+ T cells . J Exp Med 2001 ; 193 : 1373 – 1381 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  16. Arnold CN, Campbell DJ, Lipp M, Butcher EC . The germinal center response is impaired in the absence of T cell-expressed CXCR5 . Eur J Immunol 2007 ; 37 : 100 – 109 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Walker LS, Gulbranson-Judge A, Flynn S, Brocker T, Raykundalia C, Goodall M et al . Compromised OX40 function in CD28-deficient mice is linked with failure to develop CXC chemokine receptor 5-positive CD4 cells and germinal centers . J Exp Med 1999 ; 190 : 1115 – 1122 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Brocker T, Gulbranson-Judge A, Flynn S, Riedinger M, Raykundalia C, Lane P . CD4 T cell traffic control: in vivo evidence that ligation of OX40 on CD4 T cells by OX40-ligand expressed on dendritic cells leads to the accumulation of CD4 T cells in B follicles . Eur J Immunol 1999 ; 29 : 1610 – 1616 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Bossaller L, Burger J, Draeger R, Grimbacher B, Knoth R, Plebani A et al . ICOS deficiency is associated with a severe reduction of CXCR5+CD4 germinal center Th cells . J Immunol 2006 ; 177 : 4927 – 4932 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Hardtke S, Ohl L, Forster R . Balanced expression of CXCR5 and CCR7 on follicular T helper cells determines their transient positioning to lymph node follicles and is essential for efficient B-cell help . Blood 2005 ; 106 : 1924 – 1931 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Haynes NM, Allen CD, Lesley R, Ansel KM, Killeen N, Cyster JG . Role of CXCR5 and CCR7 in follicular Th cell positioning and appearance of a programmed cell death gene-1high germinal center-associated subpopulation . J Immunol 2007 ; 179 : 5099 – 5108 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Kim CH, Lim HW, Kim JR, Rott L, Hillsamer P, Butcher EC . Unique gene expression program of human germinal center T helper cells . Blood 2004 ; 104 : 1952 – 1960 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Chtanova T, Tangye SG, Newton R, Frank N, Hodge MR, Rolph MS et al . T follicular helper cells express a distinctive transcriptional profile, reflecting their role as non-Th1/Th2 effector cells that provide help for B cells . J Immunol 2004 ; 173 : 68 – 78 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Nurieva RI, Chung Y, Hwang D, Yang XO, Kang HS, Ma L et al . Generation of T follicular helper cells is mediated by interleukin-21 but independent of T helper 1, 2, or 17 cell lineages . Immunity 2008 ; 29 : 138 – 149 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Nurieva RI, Chung Y, Martinez GJ, Yang XO, Tanaka S, Matskevitch TD et al . Bcl6 mediates the development of T follicular helper cells . Science 2009 ; 325 : 1001 – 1005 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Yu D, Rao S, Tsai LM, Lee SK, He Y, Sutcliffe EL et al . The transcriptional repressor Bcl-6 directs T follicular helper cell lineage commitment . Immunity 2009 ; 31 : 457 – 468 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Johnston RJ, Poholek AC, DiToro D, Yusuf I, Eto D, Barnett B et al . Bcl6 and Blimp-1 are reciprocal and antagonistic regulators of T follicular helper cell differentiation . Science 2009 ; 325 : 1006 – 1010 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  28. Janeway CA Jr, Medzhitov R . Innate immune recognition . Annu Rev Immunol 2002 ; 20 : 197 – 216 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Linterman MA, Rigby RJ, Wong R, Silva D, Withers D, Anderson G et al . Roquin differentiates the specialized functions of duplicated T cell costimulatory receptor genes CD28 and ICOS . Immunity 2009 ; 30 : 228 – 241 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Hutloff A, Dittrich AM, Beier KC, Eljaschewitsch B, Kraft R, Anagnostopoulos I et al . ICOS is an inducible T-cell co-stimulator structurally and functionally related to CD28 . Nature 1999 ; 397 : 263 – 266 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. McAdam AJ, Chang TT, Lumelsky AE, Greenfield EA, Boussiotis VA, Duke-Cohan JS et al . Mouse inducible costimulatory molecule (ICOS) expression is enhanced by CD28 costimulation and regulates differentiation of CD4+ T cells . J Immunol 2000 ; 165 : 5035 – 5040 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Yoshinaga SK, Whoriskey JS, Khare SD, Sarmiento U, Guo J, Horan T et al . T-cell co-stimulation through B7RP-1 and ICOS . Nature 1999 ; 402 : 827 – 832 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Swallow MM, Wallin JJ, Sha WC . B7h, a novel costimulatory homolog of B7.1 and B7.2, is induced by TNFa . Immunity 1999 ; 11 : 423 – 432 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Dong C, Juedes AE, Temann U-A, Shresta S, Allison JP, Ruddle NH et al . ICOS co-stimulatory receptor is essential for T-cell activation and function . Nature 2001 ; 409 : 97 – 102 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Tafuri A, Shahinian A, Bladt F, Yoshinaga SK, Jordana M, Wakeham A et al . ICOS is essential for effective T-helper-cell responses . Nature 2001 ; 2001 : 105 – 109 .

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Nurieva RI, Mai XM, Forbush K, Bevan MJ, Dong C . B7h is required for T cell activation, differentiation, and effector function . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003 ; 100 : 14163 – 14168 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. Wang S, Bajorath J, Flies DB, Dong H, Honjo T, Chen L . Molecular modeling and functional mapping of B7-H1 and B7-DC uncouple costimulatory function from PD-1 interaction . J Exp Med 2003 ; 197 : 1083 – 1091 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Park H, Li Z, Yang XO, Chang SH, Nurieva R, Wang YH et al . A distinct lineage of CD4 T cells regulates tissue inflammation by producing interleukin 17 . Nat Immunol 2005 ; 6 : 1133 – 1141 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Dong C, Temann UA, Flavell RA . Cutting edge: critical role of inducible costimulator in germinal center reactions . J Immunol 2001 ; 166 : 3659 – 3662 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Breitfeld D, Ohl L, Kremmer E, Ellwart J, Sallusto F, Lipp M et al . Follicular B helper T cells express CXC chemokine receptor 5, localize to B cell follicles, and support immunoglobulin production . J Exp Med 2000 ; 192 : 1545 – 1552 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  41. Schaerli P, Willimann K, Lang AB, Lipp M, Loetscher P, Moser B . CXC chemokine receptor 5 expression defines follicular homing T cells with B cell helper function . J Exp Med 2000 ; 192 : 1553 – 1562 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Bauquet AT, Jin H, Paterson AM, Mitsdoerffer M, Ho IC, Sharpe AH et al . The costimulatory molecule ICOS regulates the expression of c-Maf and IL-21 in the development of follicular T helper cells and TH-17 cells . Nat Immunol 2009 ; 10 : 167 – 175 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Crotty S, Kersh EN, Cannons J, Schwartzberg PL, Ahmed R . SAP is required for generating long-term humoral immunity . Nature 2003 ; 421 : 282 – 287 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Cannons JL, Yu LJ, Jankovic D, Crotty S, Horai R, Kirby M et al . SAP regulates T cell-mediated help for humoral immunity by a mechanism distinct from cytokine regulation . J Exp Med 2006 ; 203 : 1551 – 1565 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Qi H, Cannons JL, Klauschen F, Schwartzberg PL, Germain RN . SAP-controlled T-B cell interactions underlie germinal centre formation . Nature 2008 ; 455 : 764 – 769 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Ma CS, Suryani S, Avery DT, Chan A, Nanan R, Santner-Nanan B et al . Early commitment of naive human CD4+ T cells to the T follicular helper (TFH) cell lineage is induced by IL-12 . Immunol Cell Biol 2009 ; 87 : 590 – 600 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Cannons JL, Qi H, Lu KT, Dutta M, Gomez-Rodriguez J, Cheng J et al . Optimal germinal center responses require a multistage T cell:B cell adhesion process involving integrins, SLAM-associated protein, and CD84 . Immunity 2010 ; 32 : 253 – 265 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Ozaki K, Spolski R, Feng CG, Qi CF, Cheng J, Sher A et al . A critical role for IL-21 in regulating immunoglobulin production . Science 2002 ; 298 : 1630 – 1634 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Leonard WJ, Spolski R . Interleukin-21: a modulator of lymphoid proliferation, apoptosis and differentiation . Nat Rev Immunol 2005 ; 5 : 688 – 698 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Wurster AL, Rodgers VL, Satoskar AR, Whitters MJ, Young DA, Collins M et al . Interleukin 21 is a T helper (Th) cell 2 cytokine that specifically inhibits the differentiation of naive Th cells into interferon gamma-producing Th1 cells . J Exp Med 2002 ; 196 : 969 – 977 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. Suto A, Wurster AL, Reiner SL, Grusby MJ . IL-21 inhibits IFN-gamma production in developing Th1 cells through the repression of Eomesodermin expression . J Immunol 2006 ; 177 : 3721 – 3727 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Nurieva R, Yang XO, Martinez G, Zhang Y, Panopoulos AD, Ma L et al . Essential autocrine regulation by IL-21 in the generation of inflammatory T cells . Nature 2007 ; 448 : 480 – 483 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Korn T, Bettelli E, Gao W, Awasthi A, Jager A, Strom TB et al . IL-21 initiates an alternative pathway to induce proinflammatory TH17 cells . Nature 2007 ; 448 : 484 – 487 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Zhou L, Ivanov II, Spolski R, Min R, Shenderov K, Egawa T et al . IL-6 programs TH-17 cell differentiation by promoting sequential engagement of the IL-21 and IL-23 pathways . Nat Immunol 2007 ; 8 : 967 – 974 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Vogelzang A, McGuire HM, Yu D, Sprent J, Mackay CR, King C . A fundamental role for interleukin-21 in the generation of T follicular helper cells . Immunity 2008 ; 29 : 127 – 137 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Schmitt N, Morita R, Bourdery L, Bentebibel SE, Zurawski SM, Banchereau J et al . Human dendritic cells induce the differentiation of interleukin-21-producing T follicular helper-like cells through interleukin-12 . Immunity 2009 ; 31 : 158 – 169 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  57. Theofilopoulos AN, Baccala R, Beutler B, Kono DH . Type I interferons (alpha/beta) in immunity and autoimmunity . Annu Rev Immunol 2005 ; 23 : 307 – 336 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Le Bon A, Schiavoni G, D'Agostino G, Gresser I, Belardelli F, Tough DF . Type I interferons potently enhance humoral immunity and can promote isotype switching by stimulating dendritic cells in vivo . Immunity 2001 ; 14 : 461 – 470 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Le Bon A, Tough DF . Links between innate and adaptive immunity via type I interferon . Curr Opin Immunol 2002 ; 14 : 432 – 436 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Cucak H, Yrlid U, Reizis B, Kalinke U, Johansson-Lindbom B . Type I interferon signaling in dendritic cells stimulates the development of lymph-node-resident T follicular helper cells . Immunity 2009 ; 31 : 491 – 501 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Bengtsson AA, Sturfelt G, Truedsson L, Blomberg J, Alm G, Vallin H et al . Activation of type I interferon system in systemic lupus erythematosus correlates with disease activity but not with antiretroviral antibodies . Lupus 2000 ; 9 : 664 – 671 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Braun D, Geraldes P, Demengeot J . Type I Interferon controls the onset and severity of autoimmune manifestations in lpr mice . J Autoimmun 2003 ; 20 : 15 – 25 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Santiago-Raber ML, Baccala R, Haraldsson KM, Choubey D, Stewart TA, Kono DH et al . Type-I interferon receptor deficiency reduces lupus-like disease in NZB mice . J Exp Med 2003 ; 197 : 777 – 788 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  64. Mathian A, Weinberg A, Gallegos M, Banchereau J, Koutouzov S . IFN-alpha induces early lethal lupus in preautoimmune (New Zealand black × New Zealand white) F1 but not in BALB/c mice . J Immunol 2005 ; 174 : 2499 – 2506 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Subramanian S, Tus K, Li QZ, Wang A, Tian XH, Zhou J et al . A Tlr7 translocation accelerates systemic autoimmunity in murine lupus . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006 ; 103 : 9970 – 9975 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  66. Linterman MA, Rigby RJ, Wong RK, Yu D, Brink R, Cannons JL et al . Follicular helper T cells are required for systemic autoimmunity . J Exp Med 2009 ; 206 : 561 – 576 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Afkarian M, Sedy JR, Yang J, Jacobson NG, Cereb N, Yang SY et al . T-bet is a STAT1-induced regulator of IL-12R expression in naive CD4+ T cells . Nat Immunol 2002 ; 3 : 549 – 557 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Kurata H, Lee HJ, O'Garra A, Arai N . Ectopic expression of activated Stat6 induces the expression of Th2-specific cytokines and transcription factors in developing Th1 cells . Immunity 1999 ; 11 : 677 – 688 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Fazilleau N, Mark L, McHeyzer-Williams LJ, McHeyzer-Williams MG . Follicular helper T cells: lineage and location . Immunity 2009 ; 30 : 324 – 335 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  70. King C, Tangye SG, Mackay CR . T follicular helper (TFH) cells in normal and dysregulated immune responses . Annu Rev Immunol 2008 ; 26 : 741 – 766 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Dent AL, Shaffer AL, Yu X, Allman D, Staudt LM . Control of inflammation, cytokine expression, and germinal center formation by BCL-6 . Science 1997 ; 276 : 589 – 592 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Harris MB, Chang CC, Berton MT, Danial NN, Zhang J, Kuehner D et al . Transcriptional repression of Stat6-dependent interleukin-4-induced genes by BCL-6: specific regulation of iepsilon transcription and immunoglobulin E switching . Mol Cell Biol 1999 ; 19 : 7264 – 7275 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  73. Ye BH, Cattoretti G, Shen Q, Zhang J, Hawe N, de Waard R et al . The BCL-6 proto-oncogene controls germinal-centre formation and Th2-type inflammation . Nat Genet 1997 ; 16 : 161 – 170 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Klein U, Dalla-Favera R . Germinal centres: role in B-cell physiology and malignancy . Nat Rev Immunol 2008 ; 8 : 22 – 33 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Ho IC, Hodge MR, Rooney JW, Glimcher LH . The proto-oncogene c-maf is responsible for tissue-specific expression of interleukin-4 . Cell 1996 ; 85 : 973 – 983 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Kim JI, Ho IC, Grusby MJ, Glimcher LH . The transcription factor c-Maf controls the production of interleukin-4 but not other Th2 cytokines . Immunity 1999 ; 10 : 745 – 751 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Nurieva RI, Duong J, Kishikawa H, Dianzani U, Rojo JM, Ho I et al . Transcriptional regulation of th2 differentiation by inducible costimulator . Immunity 2003 ; 18 : 801 – 811 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Lohoff M, Mittrucker HW, Prechtl S, Bischof S, Sommer F, Kock S et al . Dysregulated T helper cell differentiation in the absence of interferon regulatory factor 4 . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002 ; 99 : 11808 – 11812 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  79. Rengarajan J, Mowen KA, McBride KD, Smith ED, Singh H, Glimcher LH . Interferon regulatory factor 4 (IRF4) interacts with NFATc2 to modulate interleukin 4 gene expression . J Exp Med 2002 ; 195 : 1003 – 1012 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  80. Mittrucker HW, Matsuyama T, Grossman A, Kundig TM, Potter J, Shahinian A et al . Requirement for the transcription factor LSIRF/IRF4 for mature B and T lymphocyte function . Science 1997 ; 275 : 540 – 543 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Brustle A, Heink S, Huber M, Rosenplanter C, Stadelmann C, Yu P et al . The development of inflammatory TH-17 cells requires interferon-regulatory factor 4 . Nat Immunol 2007 ; 8 : 958 – 966 .

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Chung Y, Chang SH, Martinez GJ, Yang XO, Nurieva R, Kang HS et al . Critical regulation of early Th17 cell differentiation by interleukin-1 signaling . Immunity 2009 ; 30 : 576 – 587 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  83. Huber M, Brustle A, Reinhard K, Guralnik A, Walter G, Mahiny A et al . IRF4 is essential for IL-21-mediated induction, amplification, and stabilization of the Th17 phenotype . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2008 ; 105 : 20846 – 20851 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Chen Q, Yang W, Gupta S, Biswas P, Smith P, Bhagat G et al . IRF-4-binding protein inhibits interleukin-17 and interleukin-21 production by controlling the activity of IRF-4 transcription factor . Immunity 2008 ; 29 : 899 – 911 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  85. Kwon H, Thierry-Mieg D, Thierry-Mieg J, Kim HP, Oh J, Tunyaplin C et al . Analysis of interleukin-21-induced Prdm1 gene regulation reveals functional cooperation of STAT3 and IRF4 transcription factors . Immunity 2009 ; 31 : 941 – 952 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  86. Shaffer AL, Lin KI, Kuo TC, Yu X, Hurt EM, Rosenwald A et al . Blimp-1 orchestrates plasma cell differentiation by extinguishing the mature B cell gene expression program . Immunity 2002 ; 17 : 51 – 62 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Reinhardt RL, Liang HE, Locksley RM . Cytokine-secreting follicular T cells shape the antibody repertoire . Nat Immunol 2009 ; 10 : 385 – 393 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  88. Zaretsky AG, Taylor JJ, King IL, Marshall FA, Mohrs M, Pearce EJ . T follicular helper cells differentiate from Th2 cells in response to helminth antigens . J Exp Med 2009 ; 206 : 991 – 999 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  89. Wu HY, Quintana FJ, Weiner HL . Nasal anti-CD3 antibody ameliorates lupus by inducing an IL-10-secreting CD4+CD25−LAP+ regulatory T cell and is associated with down-regulation of IL-17+CD4+ICOS+CXCR5+ follicular helper T cells . J Immunol 2008 ; 181 : 6038 – 6050 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Tsuji M, Komatsu N, Kawamoto S, Suzuki K, Kanagawa O, Honjo T et al . Preferential generation of follicular B helper T cells from Foxp3+ T cells in gut Peyer's patches . Science 2009 ; 323 : 1488 – 1492 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Linterman MA, Vinuesa CG . Signals that influence T follicular helper cell differentiation and function . Semin Immunopathol 2010 ; in press .

  92. Hu YL, Metz DP, Chung J, Siu G, Zhang M . B7RP-1 blockade ameliorates autoimmunity through regulation of follicular helper T cells . J Immunol 2009 ; 182 : 1421 – 1428 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Simpson N, Gatenby PA, Wilson A, Malik S, Fulcher DA, Tangye SG et al . Expansion of circulating T cells resembling follicular helper T cells is a fixed phenotype that identifies a subset of severe systemic lupus erythematosus . Arthritis Rheum 2009 ; 62 : 234 – 244 .

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Vinuesa CG, Sanz I, Cook MC . Dysregulation of germinal centres in autoimmune disease . Nat Rev Immunol 2009 ; 9 : 845 – 857 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Ozaki K, Spolski R, Ettinger R, Kim HP, Wang G, Qi CF et al . Regulation of B cell differentiation and plasma cell generation by IL-21, a novel inducer of Blimp-1 and Bcl-6 . J Immunol 2004 ; 173 : 5361 – 5371 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Sawalha AH, Kaufman KM, Kelly JA, Adler AJ, Aberle T, Kilpatrick J et al . Genetic association of interleukin-21 polymorphisms with systemic lupus erythematosus . Ann Rheum Dis 2008 ; 67 : 458 – 461 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Bubier JA, Sproule TJ, Foreman O, Spolski R, Shaffer DJ, Morse HC, 3rd et al . A critical role for IL-21 receptor signaling in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus in BXSB-Yaa mice . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009 ; 106 : 1518 – 1523 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  98. Odegard JM, Marks BR, DiPlacido LD, Poholek AC, Kono DH, Dong C et al . ICOS-dependent extrafollicular helper T cells elicit IgG production via IL-21 in systemic autoimmunity . J Exp Med 2008 ; 205 : 2873 – 2886 .

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank our colleagues in Dr Chen Dong's laboratory for their contributions to the scientific content of this review and Josh D. Gregorio for critical reading of the manuscript. RN's research is funded by the National Institutes of Health.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Roza I Nurieva.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Nurieva, R., Chung, Y. Understanding the development and function of T follicular helper cells. Cell Mol Immunol 7, 190–197 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1038/cmi.2010.24

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/cmi.2010.24

Keywords

This article is cited by

Search

Quick links