Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Original Article
  • Published:

Higher frequency of genetic variants conferring increased risk for ADRs for commonly used drugs treating cancer, AIDS and tuberculosis in persons of African descent

The Pharmacogenomics Journal volume 14, pages 160–170 (2014)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

There is established clinical evidence for differences in drug response, cure rates and survival outcomes between different ethnic populations, but the causes are poorly understood. Differences in frequencies of functional genetic variants in key drug response and metabolism genes may significantly influence drug response differences in different populations. To assess this, we genotyped 1330 individuals of African (n=372) and European (n=958) descent for 4535 single-nucleotide polymorphisms in 350 key drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, elimination and toxicity genes. Important and remarkable differences in the distribution of genetic variants were observed between Africans and Europeans and among the African populations. These could translate into significant differences in drug efficacy and safety profiles, and also in the required dose to achieve the desired therapeutic effect in different populations. Our data points to the need for population-specific genetic variation in personalizing medicine and care.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. O'Donnell PH, Dolan ME . Cancer pharmacoethnicity: ethnic differences in susceptibility to the effects of chemotherapy. Clin Cancer Res 2009; 15: 4806–4814.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  2. Phillips KA, Veenstra D, Van Bebber S, Sakowski J . An introduction to cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis of pharmacogenomics. Pharmacogenomics 2003; 4: 231–239.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Ernst FR, Grizzle AJ . Drug-related morbidity and mortality: updating the cost-of-illness model. J Am Pharm Assoc (Wash) 2001; 41: 192–199.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Lazarou J, Pomeranz BH, Corey PN . Incidence of adverse drug reactions in hospitalized patients: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. JAMA 1998; 279: 1200–1205.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Yang JJ, Cheng C, Devidas M, Cao X, Fan Y, Campana D et al. Ancestry and pharmacogenomics of relapse in acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Nat Genet 2011; 43: 237–241.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. Kadan-Lottick NS, Ness KK, Bhatia S, Gurney JG . Survival variability by race and ethnicity in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. JAMA 2003; 290: 2008–2014.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Shord SS, Thompson DM, Krempl GA, Hanigan MH . Effect of concurrent medications on cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity in patients with head and neck cancer. Anti-cancer drugs 2006; 17: 207–215.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Nyongesa C, Ruff P, Donde B, Kotzen J . A phase I study of concurrent cisplatin chemotherapy in patients with carcinoma of the cervix receiving pelvic radiotherapy. Int J Gynecol Cancer 2006; 16: 1614–1619.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Krischer JP, Epstein S, Cuthbertson DD, Goorin AM, Epstein ML, Lipshultz SE . Clinical cardiotoxicity following anthracycline treatment for childhood cancer: the Pediatric Oncology Group experience. J Clin Oncol 1997; 15: 1544–1552.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Hasan S, Dinh K, Lombardo F, Kark J . Doxorubicin cardiotoxicity in African Americans. J Natl Med Assoc 2004; 96: 196–199.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Hershman D, McBride R, Jacobson JS, Lamerato L, Roberts K, Grann VR et al. Racial disparities in treatment and survival among women with early-stage breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 2005; 23: 6639–6646.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Polite BN, Dignam JJ, Olopade OI . Colorectal cancer model of health disparities: understanding mortality differences in minority populations. J Clin Oncol 2006; 24: 2179–2187.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. McCollum AD, Catalano PJ, Haller DG, Mayer RJ, Macdonald JS, Benson 3rd AB et al. Outcomes and toxicity in african-american and caucasian patients in a randomized adjuvant chemotherapy trial for colon cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2002; 94: 1160–1167.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Tishkoff SA, Reed FA, Friedlaender FR, Ehret C, Ranciaro A, Froment A et al. The genetic structure and history of Africans and African Americans. Science 2009; 324: 1035–1044.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. Campbell MC, Tishkoff SA . African genetic diversity: implications for human demographic history, modern human origins, and complex disease mapping. Ann Rev Genomics Hum Genet 2008; 9: 403–433.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Lachance J, Vernot B, Elbers CC, Ferwerda B, Froment A, Bodo JM et al. Evolutionary history and adaptation from high-coverage whole-genome sequences of diverse african hunter-gatherers. Cell 2012; 150: 457–469.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Carleton B, Poole R, Smith M, Leeder J, Ghannadan R, Ross C et al. Adverse drug reaction active surveillance: developing a national network in Canada's children's hospitals. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 2009; 18: 713–721.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Carlson CS, Eberle MA, Rieder MJ, Yi Q, Kruglyak L, Nickerson DA . Selecting a maximally informative set of single-nucleotide polymorphisms for association analyses using linkage disequilibrium. Am J Hum Genet 2004; 74: 106–120.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. International HapMap Consortium. A haplotype map of the human genome. Nature 2005; 437: 1299–1320.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. PharmGKB. The Pharmacogenomics Knowledgebase (PharmGKB) is a comprehensive resource that curates knowledge about the impact of genetic variation on drug response for clinicians and researchers. http://www.pharmgkborg. Accessed 10th of December 2012.

  21. HIV-pharmacogenomics.org.http://www.hiv-pharmacogenomics.org. Accessed 10 December, 2012.

  22. Visscher H, Ross CJ, Rassekh SR, Barhdadi A, Dube MP, Al-Saloos H et al. Pharmacogenomic prediction of anthracycline-induced cardiotoxicity in children. J Clin Oncol 2012; 30: 1422–1428.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Wojnowski L, Kulle B, Schirmer M, Schluter G, Schmidt A, Rosenberger A et al. NAD(P)H oxidase and multidrug resistance protein genetic polymorphisms are associated with doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity. Circulation 2005; 112: 3754–3762.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Blanco JG, Sun CL, Landier W, Chen L, Esparza-Duran D, Leisenring W et al. Anthracycline-related cardiomyopathy after childhood cancer: role of polymorphisms in carbonyl reductase genes—a report from the Children's Oncology Group. J Clin Oncol 2012; 30: 1415–1421.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Blanco JG, Leisenring WM, Gonzalez-Covarrubias VM, Kawashima TI, Davies SM, Relling MV et al. Genetic polymorphisms in the carbonyl reductase 3 gene CBR3 and the NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 gene NQO1 in patients who developed anthracycline-related congestive heart failure after childhood cancer. Cancer 2008; 112: 2789–2795.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Maggini V, Buda G, Martino A, Presciuttini S, Galimberti S, Orciuolo E et al. MDR1 diplotypes as prognostic markers in multiple myeloma. Pharmacogenet Genomics 2008; 18: 383–389.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Bray J, Sludden J, Griffin MJ, Cole M, Verrill M, Jamieson D et al. Influence of pharmacogenetics on response and toxicity in breast cancer patients treated with doxorubicin and cyclophosphamide. British J Cancer 2010; 102: 1003–1009.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Ross CJ, Katzov-Eckert H, Dube MP, Brooks B, Rassekh SR, Barhdadi A et al. Genetic variants in TPMT and COMT are associated with hearing loss in children receiving cisplatin chemotherapy. Nat Genet 2009; 41: 1345–1349.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Khrunin AV, Moisseev A, Gorbunova V, Limborska S . Genetic polymorphisms and the efficacy and toxicity of cisplatin-based chemotherapy in ovarian cancer patients. Pharmacogenomics J 2010; 10: 54–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Cui LH, Yu Z, Zhang TT, Shin MH, Kim HN, Choi JS . Influence of polymorphisms in MTHFR 677 C—>T, TYMS 3R—>2R and MTR 2756 A—>G on NSCLC risk and response to platinum-based chemotherapy in advanced NSCLC. Pharmacogenomics 2011; 12: 797–808.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Van Kuilenburg AB, Vreken P, Abeling NG, Bakker HD, Meinsma R, Van Lenthe H et al. Genotype and phenotype in patients with dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase deficiency. Human Genetics 1999; 104: 1–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Gross E, Busse B, Riemenschneider M, Neubauer S, Seck K, Klein HG et al. Strong association of a common dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase gene polymorphism with fluoropyrimidine-related toxicity in cancer patients. PLoS One 2008; 3: e4003.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Etienne-Grimaldi MC, Milano G, Maindrault-Goebel F, Chibaudel B, Formento JL, Francoual M et al. Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) gene polymorphisms and FOLFOX response in colorectal cancer patients. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2010; 69: 58–66.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Egbelakin A, Ferguson MJ, MacGill EA, Lehmann AS, Topletz AR, Quinney SK et al. Increased risk of vincristine neurotoxicity associated with low CYP3A5 expression genotype in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2011; 56: 361–367.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Patino-Garcia A, Zalacain M, Marrodan L, San-Julian M, Sierrasesumaga L . Methotrexate in pediatric osteosarcoma: response and toxicity in relation to genetic polymorphisms and dihydrofolate reductase and reduced folate carrier 1 expression. J Pediatr 2009; 154: 688–693.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Krajinovic M, Robaey P, Chiasson S, Lemieux-Blanchard E, Rouillard M, Primeau M et al. Polymorphisms of genes controlling homocysteine levels and IQ score following the treatment for childhood ALL. Pharmacogenomics 2005; 6: 293–302.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Shrif NE, Won HH, Lee ST, Park JH, Kim KK, Kim MJ et al. Evaluation of the effects of VKORC1 polymorphisms and haplotypes, CYP2C9 genotypes, and clinical factors on warfarin response in Sudanese patients. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2011; 67: 1119–1130.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Geisen C, Watzka M, Sittinger K, Steffens M, Daugela L, Seifried E et al. VKORC1 haplotypes and their impact on the inter-individual and inter-ethnical variability of oral anticoagulation. Thromb Haemost 2005; 94: 773–779.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Rocha V, Porcher R, Fernandes JF, Filion A, Bittencourt H, Silva Jr W et al. Association of drug metabolism gene polymorphisms with toxicities, graft-versus-host disease and survival after HLA-identical sibling hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for patients with leukemia. Leukemia 2009; 23: 545–556.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Kremer LC, Caron HN . Anthracycline cardiotoxicity in children. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 120–121.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Kremer LC, van der Pal HJ, Offringa M, van Dalen EC, Voute PA . Frequency and risk factors of subclinical cardiotoxicity after anthracycline therapy in children: a systematic review. Ann Oncol 2002; 13: 819–829.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. van der Pal HJ, van Dalen EC, Hauptmann M, Kok WE, Caron HN, van den Bos C et al. Cardiac function in 5-year survivors of childhood cancer: a long-term follow-up study. Arch Intern Med 170: 1247–1255.

  43. Kremer LC, van Dalen EC, Offringa M, Voute PA . Frequency and risk factors of anthracycline-induced clinical heart failure in children: a systematic review. Ann Oncol 2002; 13: 503–512.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. McKeage MJ . Comparative adverse effect profiles of platinum drugs. Drug Saf 1995; 13: 228–244.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Coradini PP, Cigana L, Selistre SG, Rosito LS, Brunetto AL . Ototoxicity from cisplatin therapy in childhood cancer. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2007; 29: 355–360.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Kushner BH, Budnick A, Kramer K, Modak S, Cheung NK . Ototoxicity from high-dose use of platinum compounds in patients with neuroblastoma. Cancer 2006; 107: 417–422.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Knight KR, Kraemer DF, Neuwelt EA . Ototoxicity in children receiving platinum chemotherapy: underestimating a commonly occurring toxicity that may influence academic and social development. J Clin Oncol 2005; 23: 8588–8596.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Renbarger JL, McCammack KC, Rouse CE, Hall SD . Effect of race on vincristine-associated neurotoxicity in pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia patients. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2008; 50: 769–771.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Wrighton SA, Brian WR, Sari MA, Iwasaki M, Guengerich FP, Raucy JL et al. Studies on the expression and metabolic capabilities of human liver cytochrome P450IIIA5 (HLp3). Mol Pharmacol 1990; 38: 207–213.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Kuehl P, Zhang J, Lin Y, Lamba J, Assem M, Schuetz J et al. Sequence diversity in CYP3A promoters and characterization of the genetic basis of polymorphic CYP3A5 expression. Nat Genet 2001; 27: 383–391.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Lee SJ, Usmani KA, Chanas B, Ghanayem B, Xi T, Hodgson E et al. Genetic findings and functional studies of human CYP3A5 single nucleotide polymorphisms in different ethnic groups. Pharmacogenetics 2003; 13: 461–472.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Subbaraman R, Chaguturu SK, Mayer KH, Flanigan TP, Kumarasamy N . Adverse effects of highly active antiretroviral therapy in developing countries. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 45: 1093–1101.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Vazquez MA . Southwestern Internal Medicine Conference. New advances in immunosuppression therapy for renal transplantation. Am J Med Sci 1997; 314: 415–435.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Dandara C, Lombard Z, Du Plooy I, McLellan T, Norris SA, Ramsay M . Genetic variants in CYP (-1A2, -2C9, -2C19, -3A4 and -3A5), VKORC1 and ABCB1 genes in a black South African population: a window into diversity. Pharmacogenomics 2011; 12: 1663–1670.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Sistonen J, Fuselli S, Palo JU, Chauhan N, Padh H, Sajantila A . Pharmacogenetic variation at CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and CYP2D6 at global and microgeographic scales. Pharmacogenet Genomics 2009; 19: 170–179.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Evans WE . Pharmacogenetics of thiopurine S-methyltransferase and thiopurine therapy. Ther Drug Monit 2004; 26: 186–191.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Krynetski EY, Schuetz JD, Galpin AJ, Pui CH, Relling MV, Evans WE . A single point mutation leading to loss of catalytic activity in human thiopurine S-methyltransferase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995; 92: 949–953.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We acknowledged the participation of all those who took part in this study from the different Africa countries and Canada. We also acknowledge the contributions of Bill Beggs and other members of the Tishkoff Lab (University of Pennsylvania) and the Canadian Pharmacogenomics Network for Drug Safety consortium (University of British Columbia) for the enrolment of the study participants and for the handling of the samples, assays and records. This work was supported by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Child and Family Research Institute (Bertram Hoffmeister Postdoctoral Fellowship Award for Folefac Aminkeng), Canada Foundation for Innovation, Genome British Columbia. Additional funding was provided by Child & Family Research Institute (Vancouver, BC), Faculty of Medicine of the University of British Columbia, The Canadian Gene Cure Foundation and C17 Research Network and Childhood Cancer Foundation-Candlelighters Canada, as well as NSF (BCS-0827436) and NIH (R01GM076637, 8 DP1 ES022577-04) grants to S.A.T.

Author information

Author notes

  1. S Tishkoff and B C Carleton: These authors are co-senior authors to this work.

  2. A full list of members is provided in Appendix.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Medical Genetics, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Child and Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

    F Aminkeng, L R Brunham, J Sistonen & M R Hayden

  2. Division of Translational Therapeutics, Department of Pediatrics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

    C J D Ross & B C Carleton

  3. Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology/BMT, Department of Pediatrics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

    S R Rassekh

  4. Department of Medicine, Translational Laboratory in Genetic Medicine, National University of Singapore and Association for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore

    L R Brunham & M R Hayden

  5. Inselspital, Bern University Hospital and University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland

    J Sistonen

  6. Montreal Heart Institute Research Centre and Universite de Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

    M-P Dube

  7. Department of Molecular Biology, Institute of Endemic Diseases, University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan

    M Ibrahim

  8. Department of Biochemistry, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

    T B Nyambo

  9. Kenya Medical Research Institute, Center for Biotechnology Research and Development, Nairobi, Kenya

    S A Omar

  10. UMR 208, IRD-MNHN, Musée de l’Homme, Paris, France

    A Froment

  11. Ministère de la Recherche Scientifique et de l’Innovation, Yaoundé, Cameroon

    J-M Bodo

  12. Departments of Genetics and Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA

    S Tishkoff

Authors
  1. F Aminkeng
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. C J D Ross
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. S R Rassekh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. L R Brunham
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. J Sistonen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. M-P Dube
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. M Ibrahim
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. T B Nyambo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. S A Omar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. A Froment
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  11. J-M Bodo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  12. S Tishkoff
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  13. B C Carleton
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  14. M R Hayden
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Consortia

The Canadian Pharmacogenomics Network for Drug Safety Consortium

Corresponding author

Correspondence to M R Hayden.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Supplementary Information accompanies the paper on the The Pharmacogenomics Journal website

Supplementary information

Appendix

Appendix

The Canadian Pharmacogenomics Network for Drug Safety Consortium

The Canadian Pharmacogenomics Network for Drug Safety Consortium (Participants are arranged geographically by institution across Canada)—Vancouver, BC, Children’s Hospital, Child & Family Research Institute, CMMT, POPi: Michael Hayden, Bruce Carleton, Colin Ross, Stuart MacLeod, Wyeth Wasserman, Craig Mitton, Anne Smith, Claudette Hildebrand, Lucila Castro Pastrana, Reza Ghannadan, Rod Rassekh, Jonathan Lim, Fudan Miao, Henk Visscher, Kusala Pussegoda, Folefac Aminkeng, Michelle Higginson, Nasim Massah,Mojgan Yazdanpanah, Johanne Sistonen, Ricardo Jimenez, Adrienne Borrie, Ursula Amstutz, Shevaun Hughes, Kaitlyn Shaw; Calgary, Alberta Children’s Hospital: Cheri Nijssen-Jordan, David Johnson, Linda Verbeek, Rick Kaczowka, Patti Stevenson, Andrea Hurton; Edmonton, Stollery Children’s Hospital: Paul Grundy, Kent Stobart, Bev Wilson, Sunil Desai, Maria Spavor, Linda Churcher, Terence Chow; Winnipeg, Winnipeg Children’s Hospital: Kevin Hall, Nick Honcharik, Sara Israels, Shanna Chan, Byron Garnham, Michelle Staub; London, London Health Sciences Centre: Michael Rieder, Becky Malkin; Hamilton, McMaster Children’s Hospital: Carol Portwine, Amy Cranston; Toronto, Hospital for Sick Children: Gideon Koren, Shinya Ito, Paul Nathan, Mark Greenberg, Facundo Garcia Bournissen, Miho Inoue, Sachi Sakaguchi, Toshihiro Tanaka, Hisaki Fujii, Mina Ogawa, Ryoko Ingram, Taro Kamiya & Smita Karande; Kingston, Kingston General Hospital: Mariana Silva, Stephanie Willing; Ottawa, Children’s Hospital of Eastern Ontario: Régis Vaillancourt, Pat Elliott-Miller, Donna Johnston, Herpreet Mankoo, Elaine Wong, Brenda Wilson, Lauren O’Connor; Health Canada: Maurica Maher; Montreal, Hospital Sainte-Justine: Jean-Francois Bussières, Denis Lebel, Pierre Barret, Aurélie Closon, Eve Coulson; Montreal Heart Institute: Marie-Pierre Dubé, Michael Phillips; McGill University Health Centre-Montreal Children’s Hospital: Nada Jabado, Anelise Espirito Santo, Martine Nagy; McGill University: Denise Avard; Halifax, IWK Health Centre: Margaret Murray, Darlene Boliver, Marilyn Tiller and Carol-anne Osborne.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Aminkeng, F., Ross, C., Rassekh, S. et al. Higher frequency of genetic variants conferring increased risk for ADRs for commonly used drugs treating cancer, AIDS and tuberculosis in persons of African descent. Pharmacogenomics J 14, 160–170 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/tpj.2013.13

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/tpj.2013.13

Keywords

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links