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  • Technical Reviews
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Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy and its application to topological materials

Nature Reviews Physics volume 1, pages 609–626 (2019)Cite this article

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Abstract

Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES) — an experimental technique based on the photoelectric effect — is arguably the most powerful method for probing the electronic structure of solids. The past decade has witnessed notable progress in ARPES, including the rapid development of soft-X-ray ARPES, time-resolved ARPES, spin-resolved ARPES and spatially resolved ARPES, as well as considerable improvements in energy and momentum resolution. Consequently, ARPES has emerged as an indispensable experimental probe in the study of topological materials, which have characteristic non-trivial bulk and surface electronic structures that can be directly detected by ARPES. Over the past few years, ARPES has had a crucial role in several landmark discoveries in topological materials, including the identification of topological insulators and topological Dirac and Weyl semimetals. In this Technical Review, we assess the latest developments in different ARPES techniques and illustrate the capabilities of these techniques with applications in the study of topological materials.

Key points

  • Topological materials are characterized by non-trivial bulk and surface electronic states, which can be detected and distinguished by angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES).

  • Synchrotron-based vacuum ultraviolet and soft-X-ray light make it possible to distinguish surface and bulk states through photon-energy-dependent ARPES measurements.

  • The integration of spin detectors into ARPES photoelectron spectrometers enables the detection and quantification of spin polarization in band structures.

  • Time-resolved ARPES with femtosecond laser pulses facilitates the study of ultrafast electronic dynamics and states above the chemical potential.

  • Spatially resolved ARPES with sub-micrometre spatial resolution can be used to probe the electronic structure of microscale and nanoscale materials as well as materials with phase separation or multiple domains.

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Fig. 1: Fundamentals of ARPES measurements.
Fig. 2: Synchrotron-based VUV ARPES in the study of TaAs surface states.
Fig. 3: Laser-based VUV ARPES measurements of a topological Dirac cone on the (001) surface of FeTe0.55Se0.45.
Fig. 4: Soft-X-ray ARPES studies of the bulk electronic structure of TaAs and MoP.
Fig. 5: Spin-resolved ARPES in the study of the spin texture of electronic states in Bi2Te3.
Fig. 6: Time-resolved ARPES studies of grey As and Bi2Se3.
Fig. 7: Spatially resolved ARPES in the study of the topological surface states of β-Bi4I4.

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Change history

  • 16 October 2019

    This article has been corrected to add a missing image credit to the caption of Fig. 6. The credit line of Fig. 6 now reads “Panels e and i are adapted with permission from ref.64, AAAS.”

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank N. Gedik, A. Zong, B. Fichera, C. Belvin, N. Koirala and Y. Su for useful discussions and feedback in the preparation of this manuscript. This work was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology of China (grant nos 2016YFA0401000, 2016YFA0300600 and 2015CB921300), the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant nos XDB28000000, XDB07000000 and QYZDB-SSW-SLH043), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant nos 11622435 and U1832202) and the Beijing Municipal Science and Technology Commission (grant no. Z171100002017018). B.Q.L. acknowledges support from the National Science Foundation under grant no. NSF DMR-1809815 (data analysis) and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation’s EPiQS Initiative grant GBMF4540 (manuscript writing).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics and Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

    Baiqing Lv, Tian Qian & Hong Ding

  2. Department of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge MA, USA

    Baiqing Lv

  3. CAS Centre for Excellence in Topological Quantum Computation, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

    Tian Qian & Hong Ding

  4. Songshan Lake Materials Laboratory, Dongguan, China

    Tian Qian & Hong Ding

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Supplementary information

Glossary

Fermi arc

An open contour at the Fermi energy, arising from a chiral surface state owing to the non-trivial topology of band-crossing points in bulk states.

Space-charge effect

The spectral redistribution of the energy and momentum of photoelectrons induced by Coulombic repulsion.

Bogoliubov quasiparticles

Elementary excitations of a Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer-type superconductor, corresponding to quantum superpositions of electrons and holes near the Fermi energy.

Delay-line detector

A position-sensitive detector that can determine the position of the signal source by measuring the difference in the signal arrival times at different ends of the delay line.

Shockley states

Interfacial electronic states that arise from the abrupt change in electric potential on the crystal surface or at the boundary of two materials.

Photoemission electron microscopy

A surface-sensitive technique that uses photoemitted electrons from the surface; these electrons are accelerated and collected by an area detector to generate a magnified image of the surface.

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Lv, B., Qian, T. & Ding, H. Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy and its application to topological materials. Nat Rev Phys 1, 609–626 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s42254-019-0088-5

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