Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

Primate archaeology evolves

Abstract

Since its inception, archaeology has traditionally focused exclusively on humans and our direct ancestors. However, recent years have seen archaeological techniques applied to material evidence left behind by non-human animals. Here, we review advances made by the most prominent field investigating past non-human tool use: primate archaeology. This field combines survey of wild primate activity areas with ethological observations, excavations and analyses that allow the reconstruction of past primate behaviour. Because the order Primates includes humans, new insights into the behavioural evolution of apes and monkeys also can be used to better interrogate the record of early tool use in our own, hominin, lineage. This work has recently doubled the set of primate lineages with an excavated archaeological record, adding Old World macaques and New World capuchin monkeys to chimpanzees and humans, and it has shown that tool selection and transport, and discrete site formation, are universal among wild stone-tool-using primates. It has also revealed that wild capuchins regularly break stone tools in a way that can make them difficult to distinguish from simple early hominin tools. Ultimately, this research opens up opportunities for the development of a broader animal archaeology, marking the end of archaeology’s anthropocentric era.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Rent or buy this article

Prices vary by article type

from$1.95

to$39.95

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1: Locations and examples of stone tool use by wild non-human primates and early hominins.
Fig. 2: Archaeologically excavated stone tools used in percussive activities.

References

  1. Harmand, S. et al. 3.3-million-year-old stone tools from Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya. Nature 521, 310–315 (2015).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Haslam, M. et al. Primate archaeology. Nature 460, 339–344 (2009).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Huxley, T. H. Evidence as to Man’s Place in Nature (Williams and Norgate, London, 1863).

  4. Joulian, F. in Modelling the Early Human Mind (eds Mellars, P. & Gibson, K.) 173–189 (McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, 1996).

  5. Sept, J. Was there no place like home? A new perspective on early hominid archaeological sites from the mapping of chimpanzee nests. Curr. Anthropol. 33, 187–207 (1992).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Mercader, J., Panger, M. & Boesch, C. Excavation of a chimpanzee stone tool site in the African rainforest. Science 296, 1452–1455 (2002).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Mercader, J. et al. 4,300-year-old chimpanzee sites and the origins of percussive stone technology. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 104, 3043–3048 (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Boesch, C. & Boesch-Achermann, H. The Chimpanzees of the Tai Forest: Behavioral Ecology and Evolution (Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, 2000).

  9. Matsuzawa, T., Humle, T. & Sugiyama, Y. The Chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba (Springer, Tokyo, 2011).

  10. Luncz, L., Mundry, R. & Boesch, C. Evidence for cultural differences between neighboring chimpanzee communities. Curr. Biol. 22, 922–926 (2012).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Carvalho, S., Cunha, E., Sousa, C. & Matsuzawa, T. Chaînes opératoires and resource-exploitation strategies in chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) nut cracking. J. Hum. Evol. 55, 148–163 (2008).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Stewart, F., Piel, A. & McGrew, W. C. Living archaeology: artefacts of specific nest site fidelity in wild chimpanzees. J. Hum. Evol. 61, 388–395 (2011).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Hernandez-Aguilar, A. Chimpanzee nest distribution and site reuse in a dry habitat: implications for early hominin ranging. J. Hum. Evol. 57, 350–364 (2009).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Hernandez-Aguilar, A., Moore, J. & Pickering, T. Savanna chimpanzees use tools to harvest the underground storage organs of plants. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 104, 19210–19213 (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. Pruetz, J. D. et al. New evidence on the tool-assisted hunting exhibited by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in a savannah habitat at Fongoli, Senegal. R. Soc. Open Sci. 2, 140507 (2015).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  16. McGrew, W. C. Chimpanzee Material Culture: Implications for Human Evolution (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1992).

  17. McGrew, W. C. The Cultured Chimpanzee: Reflections on Cultural Primatology (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 2004).

  18. McGrew, W. C. et al. Ethoarchaeology and elementary technology of unhabituated wild chimpanzees at Assirik, Senegal, West Africa. PaleoAnthropology 2003, 1–20 (2003).

    Google Scholar 

  19. Fragaszy, D., Izar, P., Visalberghi, E., Ottoni, E. & de Oliveira, M. Wild capuchin monkeys (Cebus libidinosus) use anvils and stone pounding tools. Am. J. Primatol. 64, 359–366 (2004).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Malaivijitnond, S. et al. Stone-tool usage by Thai long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). Am. J. Primatol. 69, 227–233 (2007).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Haslam, M. Towards a prehistory of primates. Antiquity 86, 299–315 (2012).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. McGrew, W. C. Chimpanzee technology. Science 328, 579–580 (2010).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Carvalho, S. & McGrew, W. C. in Stone Tools and Fossil Bones (ed. Dominguez-Rodrigo, M.) 201–221 (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 2012).

  24. McGrew, W. C. & Foley, R. A. Palaeoanthropology meets primatology. J. Hum. Evol. 57, 335–336 (2009).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Imanishi, K. Identification: a process of enculturation in the subhuman society of Macaca fuscata. Primates 1, 1–29 (1957).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Yerkes, R. M. & Yerkes, A. W. The Great Apes (Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, 1929).

  27. Kohler, W. The Mentality of Apes (Harcourt Brace, New York, 1925).

  28. Willey, G. R. & Phillips, P. Method and Theory in American Archaeology (Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago, 1958).

  29. Fleagle, J. Primate Adaptation and Evolution (Academic, London, 2013).

  30. Haslam, M. ‘Captivity bias’ in animal tool use and its implications for the evolution of hominin technology. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 368, 20120421 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Haslam, M. et al. Archaeological excavation of wild macaque stone tools. J. Hum. Evol. 96, 134–138 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Proffitt, T. et al. Wild monkeys flake stone tools. Nature 539, 85–88 (2016).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Haslam, M. et al. Pre-Columbian monkey tools. Curr. Biol. 26, R521–R522 (2016).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Santos, J. C., Barreto, A. M. F. & Suguio, K. Quaternary deposits in the Serra da Capivara National Park and surrounding area, southeastern Piauí state, Brazil. Geol. USP. Sér. Cient. 12, 115–132 (2012).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Luncz, L., Wittig, R. & Boesch, C. Primate archaeology reveals cultural transmission in wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus). Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 370, 20140348 (2015).

  36. Huffman, M. A., Leca, J.-B. & Nahallage, C. A. D. in The Japanese Macaques (eds Nakagawa, N. et al.) 191–219 (Springer, Tokyo, 2010).

  37. Bobe, R. & Behrensmeyer, A. K. The expansion of grassland ecosystems in Africa in relation to mammalian evolution and the origin of the genus. Homo. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol 207, 399–420 (2004).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Langergraber, K. E. et al. How old are chimpanzee communities? Time to the most recent common ancestor of the Y-chromosome in highly patrilocal societies. J. Hum. Evol. 69, 1–7 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Prado-Martinez, J. et al. Great ape genetic diversity and population history. Nature 499, 471–475 (2013).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Morgan, B. & Abwe, E. Chimpanzees use stone hammers in Cameroon. Curr. Biol. 16, R632–R633 (2006).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Haslam, M. On the tool use behavior of the bonobo–chimpanzee last common ancestor, and the origins of hominine stone tool use. Am. J. Primatol. 76, 910–918 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Sayers, K., Raghanti, M. A. & Lovejoy, O. Human evolution and the chimpanzee referential doctrine. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 41, 119–138 (2012).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Whiten, A. et al. Studying extant species to model our past. Science 327, 410 (2010).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Moore, J. in Great Ape Societies (eds McGrew, W. C. et al.) 275–292 (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1996).

  45. Lynch Alfaro, J. W. et al. Explosive Pleistocene range expansion leads to widespread Amazonian sympatry between robust and gracile capuchin monkeys. J. Biogeogr 39, 272–288 (2012).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Whiten, A. et al. Cultures in chimpanzees. Nature 399, 682–685 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Gruber, T. Historical hypotheses of chimpanzee tool use behaviour in relation to natural and human-induced changes in an East African rain forest. Rev. Primatol. 5, http://dx.doi.org/10.4000/primatologie.1690 (2013).

  48. Hernandez-Aguilar, R. A., Moore, J. & Stanford, C. B. Chimpanzee nesting patterns in savanna habitat: environmental influences and preferences. Am. J. Primatol. 75, 979–994 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Pascual-Garrido, A., Buba, U., Nodza, G. & Sommer, V. Obtaining raw material: plants as tool sources for Nigerian chimpanzees. Folia Primatol. 83, 24–44 (2012).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Stewart, F. A. & Piel, A. K. Termite fishing by wild chimpanzees: new data from Ugalla, western Tanzania. Primates 55, 35–40 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. McBeath, N. & McGrew, W. C. Tools used by wild chimpanzees to obtain termites at Mt Assirik, Senegal: the influence of habitat. J. Hum. Evol. 11, 65–72 (1982).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Visalberghi, E. et al. Use of stone hammer tools and anvils by bearded capuchin monkeys over time and space: construction of an archeological record of tool use. J. Archaeol. Sci. 40, 3222–3232 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Luncz, L. V., Proffitt, T., Kulik, L., Haslam, M. & Wittig, R. M. Distance–decay effect in stone tool transport by wild chimpanzees. Proc. R. Soc. B 283, 20161607 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Blumenschine, R. J., Masao, F. T., Tactikos, J. C. & Ebert, J. I. Effects of distance from stone source on landscape-scale variation in Oldowan artifact assemblages in the Paleo-Olduvai Basin, Tanzania. J. Archaeol. Sci. 35, 76–86 (2008).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Sirianni, G., Mundry, R. & Boesch, C. When to choose which tool: multidimensional and conditional selection of nut-cracking hammers in wild chimpanzees. Anim. Behav. 100, 152–165 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Fragaszy, D. et al. The fourth dimension of tool use: temporally enduring artefacts aid primates learning to use tools. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 368, 20120410 (2013).

  57. Leca, J., Gunst, N. & Huffman, M. A. Indirect social influence in the maintenance of the stone-handling tradition in Japanese macaques. Macaca fuscata. Anim. Behav. 79, 117–126 (2010).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Haslam, M., Pascual-Garrido, A., Malaivijitnond, S. & Gumert, M. Stone tool transport by wild Burmese long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis aurea). J. Archaeol. Sci. 7, 408–413 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  59. Kühl, H. S. et al. Chimpanzee accumulative stone throwing. Sci. Rep. 6, 22219 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  60. Delagnes, A. & Roche, H. Late Pliocene hominid knapping skills: the case of Lokalalei 2C, west Turkana, Kenya. J. Hum. Evol. 48, 435–472 (2005).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Harris, J. W. K. Cultural beginnings: Plio–Pleistocene archaeological occurrences from the Afar, Ethiopia. African Archaeol. Rev. 1, 3–31 (1983).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Dibble, H. L. et al. Major fallacies surrounding stone artifacts and assemblages. J. Archaeol. Method Theory 24, 813–851 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. de la Torre, I., Benito-Calvo, A., Arroyo, A., Zupancich, A. & Proffitt, T. Experimental protocols for the study of battered stone anvils from Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania). J. Archaeol. Sci. 40, 313–332 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Caruana, M. V. et al. Quantifying traces of tool use: a novel morphometric analysis of damage patterns on percussive tools. PLoS ONE 9, e113856 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Benito-Calvo, A., Carvalho, S., Arroyo, A., Matsuzawa, T. & de la Torre, I. First GIS analysis of modern stone tools used by wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in Bossou, Guinea, West Africa. PLoS ONE 10, e0121613 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  66. Haslam, M., Gumert, M., Biro, D., Carvalho, S. & Malaivijitnond, S. Use-wear patterns on wild macaque stone tools reveal their behavioural history. PLoS ONE 8, e72872 (2013).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. McDougall, I. & Brown, F. H. Geochronology of the pre-KBS tuff sequence, Omo Group, Turkana Basin. J. Geol. Soc. Lond. 165, 549–562 (2008).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Isaac, G. L. in Patterns of the Past (eds Hodder, I. et al.) 131–155 (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1981).

  69. Plummer, T. Flaked stones and old bones: biological and cultural evolution at the dawn of technology. Yearb. Phys. Anthropol. 47, 118–164 (2004).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Potts, R. Environmental and behavioral evidence pertaining to the evolution of early. Homo. Curr. Anthropol. 53, S299–S317 (2012).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Voris, H. K. Maps of Pleistocene sea levels in Southeast Asia: shorelines, river systems and time durations. J. Biogeogr. 27, 1153–1167 (2000).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Scheffers, A. et al. Holocene sea levels along the Andaman Sea coast of Thailand. Holocene 22, 1169–1180 (2012).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Hoffecker, J. F., Elias, S. A., O’Rourke, D. H., Scott, G. R. & Bigelow, N. H. Beringia and the global dispersal of modern humans. Evol. Anthropol. 25, 64–78 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Will, M., Kandel, A. W., Kyriacou, K. & Conard, N. J. An evolutionary perspective on coastal adaptations by modern humans during the Middle Stone Age of Africa. Quat. Int. 404, 68–86 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Panger, M., Brooks, A., Richmond, B. G. & Wood, B. Older than the Oldowan? Rethinking the emergence of hominin tool use. Evol. Anthropol. 11, 235–245 (2002).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Marchant, L. F. & McGrew, W. C. in Stone Knapping: The Necessary Conditions for a Uniquely Hominin Behaviour (eds Roux, V. & Bril, B.) 341–350 (McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, 2005).

  77. Wynn, T., Hernandez-Aguilar, R. A., Marchant, L. F. & McGrew, W. C. ‘An ape’s view of the Oldowan’ revisited. Evol. Anthropol. 20, 181–197 (2011).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Arroyo, A., Hirata, S., Matsuzawa, T. & de la Torre, I. Nut cracking tools used by captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and their comparison with early Stone Age percussive artefacts from Olduvai Gorge. PLoS ONE 11, e0166788 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  79. Mannu, M. & Ottoni, E. B. The enhanced tool-kit of two groups of wild bearded capuchin monkeys in the Caatinga: tool making, associative use, and secondary tools. Am. J. Primatol. 71, 242–251 (2009).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Falótico, T. & Ottoni, E. B. The manifold use of pounding stone tools by wild capuchin monkeys of Serra da Capivara National Park, Brazil. Behaviour 153, 421–442 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Gumert, M. & Malaivijitnond, S. Marine prey processed with stone tools by Burmese long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis aurea) in intertidal habitats. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 149, 447–457 (2012).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Visalberghi, E. et al. Characteristics of hammer stones and anvils used by wild bearded capuchin monkeys (Cebus libidinosus) to crack open palm nuts. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 132, 426–444 (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Marchant, L. F. & McGrew, W. C. Handedness is more than laterality: lessons from chimpanzees. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1288, 1–8 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Gumert, M. D. & Malaivijitnond, S. Long-tailed macaques select mass of stone tools according to food type. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 368, 20120413 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  85. Visalberghi, E. et al. Selection of effective stone tools by wild bearded capuchin monkeys. Curr. Biol. 19, 213–217 (2009).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Luncz, L. V. et al. Wild capuchin monkeys adjust stone tools according to changing nut properties. Sci. Rep. 6, 33089 (2016).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  87. Semaw, S. The world’s oldest stone artefacts from Gona, Ethiopia: their implications for understanding stone technology and patterns of human evolution between 2.6–1.5 million years ago. J. Archaeol. Sci. 27, 1197–1214 (2000).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  88. de la Torre, I., Mora, R., Domýìnguez-Rodrigo, M., de Luque, L. & Alcalá, L. The Oldowan industry of Peninj and its bearing on the reconstruction of the technological skills of lower Pleistocene hominids. J. Hum. Evol. 44, 203–224 (2003).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Spagnoletti, N. et al. Stone tool use in wild bearded capuchin monkeys, Cebus libidinosus. Is it a strategy to overcome food scarcity? Anim. Behav. 83, 1285–1294 (2012).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  90. Haslam, M. in The Archaeology of African Plant Use (eds Nixon, S. et al.) 25–35 (Left Coast, Walnut Creek, 2014).

  91. Thieme, H. Lower Palaeolithic hunting spears from Germany. Nature 385, 807–810 (1997).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Joordens, J. C. A. et al. Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving. Nature 518, 228–231 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. van Schaik, C. et al. Orangutan cultures and the evolution of material culture. Science 299, 102–105 (2003).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Furuichi, T. et al. Why do wild bonobos not use tools like chimpanzees do? Behaviour 152, 425–460 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  95. Schuppli, C. et al. Development of foraging skills in two orangutan populations: needing to learn or needing to grow? Front. Zool. 13, 43 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  96. Semaw, S. et al. 2.5-million-year-old stone tools from Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 385, 333–336 (1997).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Nishida, T., Matsusaka, T. & McGrew, W. C. Emergence, propagation or disappearance of novel behavioral patterns in the habituated chimpanzees of Mahale: a review. Primates 50, 23–36 (2009).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Perry, S. & Manson, J. H. Traditions in monkeys. Evol. Anthropol. 12, 71–81 (2003).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  99. Falótico, T. et al. Analysis of sea almond (Terminalia catappa) cracking sites used by wild Burmese long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis aurea). Am. J. Primatol. 79, e22629 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  100. Haslam, M., Cardoso, R. M., Visalberghi, E. & Fragaszy, D. Stone anvil damage by wild bearded capuchins (Sapajus libidinosus) during pounding tool use: a field experiment. PLoS ONE 9, e111273 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  101. Emslie, S. D., Polito, M. J., Brasso, R., Patterson, W. P. & Sun, L. Ornithogenic soils and the paleoecology of pygoscelid penguins in Antarctica. Quat. Int. 352, 4–15 (2014).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  102. Estrada, A. et al. Impending extinction crisis of the world’s primates: why primates matter. Sci. Adv. 3, e1600946 (2017).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  103. Hockings, K. J. et al. Tools to tipple: ethanol ingestion by wild chimpanzees using leaf-sponges. R. Soc. Open Sci. 2, 150150 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  104. Semaw, S. et al. 2.6-million-year-old stone tools and associated bones from OGS-6 and OGS-7, Gona, Afar, Ethiopia. J. Hum. Evol. 45, 169–177 (2003).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

Funding was received from European Research Council Starting Grant no. 283959 (Primate Archaeology) awarded to M.H.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Contributions

M.H., R.A.H.-A., L.V.L. and T.P. conceived the paper. M.H. wrote the paper, with contributions from all other authors. T.P. prepared the figures, with assistance from M.H.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael Haslam.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Haslam, M., Hernandez-Aguilar, R.A., Proffitt, T. et al. Primate archaeology evolves. Nat Ecol Evol 1, 1431–1437 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0286-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0286-4

This article is cited by

Search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing