Dear Editor,
Engulfment of dead cells is essential for tissue homeostasis and prevention of inflammation. Classical theory is that this process is performed largely by professional phagocytes such as macrophages and dendritic cells (DC)1. However, increasing data suggest a role of neighboring nonprofessional cells in this process2. Uptake of apoptotic cells has been studied intensively, which involves recognition of apoptotic cells by receptors on engulfing cells that recognize the so-called ‘eat-me’ signals on the surface of the apoptotic cells1,2. Clearance of necrotic cells is thought of high importance to tissue homeostasis as necrotic cells could leak intracellular materials that might evoke inflammation. There are studies of necrotic cell clearance, but it is limited especially for the recently uncovered programmed necrosis including necroptosis and pyroptosis. The ‘eat-me’ signal phosphatidylserine (PS) can be detected on necroptotic cells3,4 and was believed to drive recognition and phagocytosis by professional phagocytes1,5. However, no direct evidence has been found to support that PS is required for the phagocytosis of necroptotic cells. Because of the interconversion between apoptosis and necroptosis or pyroptosis, mixed types of cell death often occurred in experiments, which could lead to misinterpretation of the results. In order to specifically induce a certain type of cell death, we used a dimerization/oligomerization system, which is based on antiestrogen 4-hydroxytamxifen (4-OHT)-induced homo-dimerization of hormone-binding domain’s G521R mutant (HBD*) of estrogen receptor, to artificially induce oligomerization of signaling molecules in cell death pathways in our previous studies6,7. Inducible oligomerization of caspase-8, mixed lineage kinase domain-like N-terminal domain (MLKL-ND), and gasdermin D N-terminal domain (GSDMD-N) in given cells such as NIH3T3 was used here to specifically induce apoptosis, necroptosis, and pyroptosis, respectively (Supplementary Fig. S1a). We detected PS exposure in all three types of cell death (Supplementary Fig. S1b). The PS positive cells were committed to death since they could not regrow (Supplementary Fig. S1c). We analyzed their phagocytosis by their live peers (nonprofessional phagocytes) using NIH3T3 cells and used heat-killed NIH3T3 cells as controls. Whereas heat-killed cells were engulfed very inefficiently, we observed the uptake of not only apoptotic cells but also necroptotic and pyroptotic cells (Fig. 1a, b; Supplementary Fig. S2a, c). In contrast to the common assumption that apoptosis would undergo the process of phagocytosis easily, necroptotic cells and pyroptotic cells were engulfed much more efficiently than apoptotic cells by their live peers (Fig. 1b; Supplementary Fig. S2a). The engulfment of necroptotic and pyroptotic cells can take place among the same type of cells and also between different types of cells (Supplementary Fig. S3a, b). More phagocytosis of TNF-induced necroptotic cells was also observed than that of apoptotic cells (Supplementary Fig. S3c). We then compared phagocytosis of necrotic cells with that of apoptotic cells by bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM), peritoneal macrophages, and bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDC), and found that necroptotic and pyroptotic cells were engulfed more efficiently than apoptotic cells (Fig. 1c, d; Supplementary Figs. S2b, d and S3d–i). BMDM is the most potent phagocyte, and it also engulfs heat-killed cells with an efficiency similar to its uptake of apoptotic cells. The nonprofessional phagocytes showed similar phagocytic activity to that of BMDC, and we further analyzed engulfment of necroptotic cells by their live peers in more detail.
In Fig. 1e, a live lifeact-EGFP (enhanced green fluorescent protein)-expressing L929 cell is shown, which has engulfed an intact necroptotic RFP (red fluorescent protein)-KDELR1-expressing L929 cell. Lifeact is an actin-binding 17-amino-acid peptide that does not interfere with actin dynamics8, and KDELR1 is an endoplasmic reticulum-localized protein9. Necroptosis of RFP L929 cells was induced by TNF in the presence of pan caspase inhibitor zVAD (TZ treatment). The engulfment process is shown in Supplementary Movies S1 and S2. Like classical phagocytosis, pseudopods form on live cells (green), probing for necroptotic cells (red) in the environment. Once a necroptotic cell is touched by a pseudopod, it is pulled towards the live cell and an engulfment begins as a phagocytic cup-like structure gradually wrapping around the dead cell (Supplementary Fig. S4 and Supplementary Movie S1). Interestingly, live cells not always succeed in engulfing the intact necroptotic prey, as we observed that two live cells both began to engulf a single necroptotic cell and ripped the dead cell apart (Supplementary Movie S2). The engulfed cell went to lysosome as indicated by its colocalization with Lamp1 (Fig. 1f). Inhibition of vacuolar H+-ATPase by balifomycin A1 impaired the phagocytosis (Fig. 1g).
We incubated necroptotic L929 cells with live L929 cells in different ratios and measured the uptake of dead cells at different time points (Fig. 1h). The uptake of dead cells was time-dependently increased and higher ratio of necroptotic cells also increased uptake. The ratio of live cells that has taken necroptotic cell(s) reached almost 100%, indicating that every live cell is capable to engulf necroptotic cells. Extending co-culture time also increased the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells (Supplementary Fig. S3j). To address whether one live cell could engulf more than one necroptotic cell, we used PKH67 or PKH26 to stain necroptotic NIH3T3 cells separately and then incubated their mixture with live cells. We detected certain amount of PKH67 and PKH26 double positive live cells, indicating that an individual live cell can engulf more than one necroptotic cell (Fig. 1i). Although the engulfed dead cell could provide nutrient for the live peers, we did not observe any difference in proliferation between cells that had taken or had not taken dead cells (Fig. 1j). We next determined whether the engulfment of necroptotic cells by their live peers occurred before or after their plasma membrane disruption. H2B is a nuclear protein that stays in cells even when the plasma membrane is broken. We used necroptosis-resistant MLKL knockout (KO) L929 cells as live cells and H2B-RFP (fusion protein of histone 2 B and red fluorescent protein)-expressing L929 cells to generate necroptotic cells. Celltrace-labeled MLKL KO L929 cells and H2B-RFP-expressing L929 cells were incubated individually or together in the presence or absence of TZ and cell-impermeant nucleic acid dye Sytox Green. Cells were collected and stained with another live cell dye calcein blue, and then analyzed by flow cytometry. The live cells that had engulfed dead cell(s) were gated using RFP positive plus double positive of celltrace and calcein blue. Sytox Green and RFP intensities of gated cells were shown in Fig. 1k (right panel). Almost all the live cells that had engulfed RFP-positive cell were Sytox Green positive, indicating the loss of plasma membrane integrity occurred before dead cells being engulfed.
It is well known that blocking PS by Annexin V can efficiently inhibit phagocytosis of apoptotic cells10. We found that while Annexin V blocked engulfment of apoptotic cells by BMDM or BMDC, it had no effect on the uptake of necroptotic and pyroptotic cells by its peers (Fig. 1l, m; Supplementary Fig. S5a–c). We then collected supernatants of necroptotic and pyroptotic cells and found that the supernatants had no effect on the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells, excluding the possibility that necrotic cells release factor(s) that blocks classic phagocytosis. We also knocked down calreticulin (CRT), another crucial ‘eat-me’ signal in apoptosis1,2, and found it did not affect the engulfment of necroptotic cells by BMDC and NIH3T3 cells (Supplementary Fig. S5d, e). The addition of soluble CRT peptide that competitively bind CRT receptor(s) also showed no blocking effect (Supplementary Fig. S5f). Expression of a PS receptor Tim41 in NIH3T3 cells enhanced their ability to engulf both necroptotic and apoptotic NIH3T3 cells but Annexin V had no inhibitory effects on the enhanced engulfment, suggesting the involvement of other ligand(s) of Tim4 (Supplementary Fig. S5g). We then performed a series of experiments using different inhibitors to compare the engulfment of necroptotic and pyroptotic NIH3T3 cells by NIH3T3 and BMDC. Inhibition of actin filaments by cytochalasin B suppressed the engulfment by both NIH3T3 and BMDC (Supplementary Fig. S6a), so did inhibition of PI3K by wortmanin (Supplementary Fig. S6b) and inhibition of Rac 1 by EHop-016 (Supplementary Fig. S6c). Inhibition of integrin by SB273005 and inhibition of ROCK by Y27632 had no effect on the phagocytosis by both types of cells (Supplementary Fig. S6d, e). In addition, engulfment of necroptotic and pyroptotic NIH3T3 cells by NIH3T3 but not by BMDC is heavily dependent on Ca2+ (Supplementary Fig. S6f–i). Thus, engulfment of necroptotic and pyroptotic cells should be mediated by other ligand-receptor(s) and there are also differences in the mechanisms used by professional and nonprofessional phagocytes.
It was unexpected that the phagocytosis of necroptotic and pyroptotic cells is more efficient than that of apoptotic cells. Since necrosis is inflammatory, high efficiency of the engulfment of necroptotic and pyroptotic cells could be a mechanism to prevent inflammation. It is interesting to find out the high efficiency of phagocytosis of necroptotic and pyroptotic cells by nonprofessional phagocytes. Nonprofessional phagocyte-mediated engulfment of apoptotic cells is involved in the clearance of apoptotic cells during foot plate development11, and of airway apoptotic epithelial cells under allergen stimulation12. The phagocytosis of necrotic cells by nonprofessional phagocyte is highly likely to occur in vivo. If so, the engulfment of necrotic cells by their neighborhood nonprofessional phagocytes should be the very first line of defense against necrotic cell-induced local inflammation.
References
Nagata, S., Hanayama, R. & Kawane, K. Autoimmunity and the clearance of dead cells. Cell. 140, 619–630 (2010).
Arandjelovic, S. & Ravichandran, K. S. Phagocytosis of apoptotic cells in homeostasis. Nat. Immunol. 16, 907–917 (2015).
Wang, X. et al. Metaxin is required for tumor necrosis factor-induced cell death. EMBO Rep. 2, 628–633 (2001).
Zargarian, S. et al. Phosphatidylserine externalization, “necroptotic bodies” release, and phagocytosis during necroptosis. PLoS Biol. 15, e2002711 (2017).
Fadok, V. A. et al. Exposure of phosphatidylserine on the surface of apoptotic lymphocytes triggers specific recognition and removal by macrophages. J. Immunol. 148, 2207–2216 (1992).
Ren, J. et al. The RIP3-RIP1-NF-kappaB signaling axis is dispensable for necroptotic cells to elicit cross-priming of CD8(+) T cells. Cell. Mol. Immunol. 14, 639–642 (2017).
Wu, X. N. et al. Distinct roles of RIP1-RIP3 hetero- and RIP3-RIP3 homo-interaction in mediating necroptosis. Cell Death Differ. 21, 1709–1720 (2014).
Riedl, J. et al. Lifeact: a versatile marker to visualize F-actin. Nat. Methods. 5, 605–607 (2008).
Cabrera, M. et al. The retrieval function of the KDEL receptor requires PKA phosphorylation of its C-terminus. Mol. Biol. Cell. 14, 4114–4125 (2003).
Callahan, M. K., Williamson, P. & Schlegel, R. A. Surface expression of phosphatidylserine on macrophages is required for phagocytosis of apoptotic thymocytes. Cell Death Differ. 7, 645–653 (2000).
Wood, W. et al. Mesenchymal cells engulf and clear apoptotic footplate cells in macrophageless PU.1 null mouse embryos. Development. 127, 5245–5252 (2000).
Lee, C. S. et al. Boosting apoptotic cell clearance by colonic epithelial cells attenuates inflammation in vivo. Immunity. 44, 807–820 (2016).
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (81788101), National Basic Research Program of China (973 Program 2015CB553800), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (31420103910, 81630042, and 91029304), the 111 Project (B12001), and the National Science Foundation of China for Fostering Talents in Basic Research (J1310027).
Authors’ contributions
J.L., W.S., and B.L. designed and performed the experiments with the help from C.C., R.W, H.L., and Y.Z. J.H. developed the main concept and wrote the manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary information
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Lu, J., Shi, W., Liang, B. et al. Efficient engulfment of necroptotic and pyroptotic cells by nonprofessional and professional phagocytes. Cell Discov 5, 39 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41421-019-0108-8
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41421-019-0108-8
This article is cited by
-
Update of cellular responses to the efferocytosis of necroptosis and pyroptosis
Cell Division (2023)
-
A guide to cell death pathways
Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology (2023)
-
Erythropoietin promotes M2 macrophage phagocytosis of Schwann cells in peripheral nerve injury
Cell Death & Disease (2022)
-
Enhanced channel activity by PI(4,5)P2 ignites MLKL-related pathogenic processes
Cell Discovery (2022)