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Kidney stones

Nature Reviews Disease Primers volume 2, Article number: 16008 (2016) Cite this article

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A Correction to this article was published on 12 January 2017

Abstract

Kidney stones are mineral deposits in the renal calyces and pelvis that are found free or attached to the renal papillae. They contain crystalline and organic components and are formed when the urine becomes supersaturated with respect to a mineral. Calcium oxalate is the main constituent of most stones, many of which form on a foundation of calcium phosphate called Randall's plaques, which are present on the renal papillary surface. Stone formation is highly prevalent, with rates of up to 14.8% and increasing, and a recurrence rate of up to 50% within the first 5 years of the initial stone episode. Obesity, diabetes, hypertension and metabolic syndrome are considered risk factors for stone formation, which, in turn, can lead to hypertension, chronic kidney disease and end-stage renal disease. Management of symptomatic kidney stones has evolved from open surgical lithotomy to minimally invasive endourological treatments leading to a reduction in patient morbidity, improved stone-free rates and better quality of life. Prevention of recurrence requires behavioural and nutritional interventions, as well as pharmacological treatments that are specific for the type of stone. There is a great need for recurrence prevention that requires a better understanding of the mechanisms involved in stone formation to facilitate the development of more-effective drugs.

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Figure 1: Macroscopic and microscopic morphology of human kidneys and location of stones.
Figure 2: Calcium oxalate kidney stones examined using scanning electron microscopy.
Figure 3: Scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy of kidney stones.
Figure 4: The renal interstitium of a calcium oxalate stone former with Randall's plaque.
Figure 5: The renal papillary surface of a calcium oxalate monohydrate stone former examined using scanning electron microscopy.
Figure 6: Randall's plaque and calcium oxalate stone formation.
Figure 7: Algorithm for the most common approaches to surgical treatment of kidney stones.
Figure 8: Potential methods to interfere with abnormal crystallization and stone formation.

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Acknowledgements

Research funding to S.R.K. is provided by NIH grant numbers RO1-DK078602 and RO1-DK092311. S.R.K. thanks P. J. Khan for her assistance in preparing the manuscript.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Urology, University of Florida, 1600 SW Archer Road, Gainesville, 32610, Florida, USA

    Saeed R. Khan & Benjamin K. Canales

  2. Department of Urology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA

    Margaret S. Pearle

  3. Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

    William G. Robertson

  4. Stone Biochemist, Lithoscreen Service, London, UK

    William G. Robertson

  5. Division of Nephrology and Dialysis, Columbus-Gemelli University Hospital Catholic University, School of Medicine, Rome, Italy

    Giovanni Gambaro

  6. Department of Urology, Tenon Hospital, Hôpitaux Universitaires Paris-EST, Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, Université Pierre et Marie Curie Paris 6, Paris, France

    Steeve Doizi & Olivier Traxer

  7. Division of Urology, Department of Clinical Sciences, Intervention and Technology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden

    Hans-Göran Tiselius

Authors
  1. Saeed R. Khan
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  2. Margaret S. Pearle
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  3. William G. Robertson
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  4. Giovanni Gambaro
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  5. Benjamin K. Canales
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  7. Olivier Traxer
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  8. Hans-Göran Tiselius
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Contributions

Introduction (S.R.K.); Epidemiology (M.S.P.); Mechanism/pathophysiology (W.G.R. and S.R.K.); Diagnosis, screening and prevention (G.G.); Management (G.G. and B.K.C.); Quality of life (S.D. and O.T.); Outlook (H.G.T.); Overview of the Primer (S.R.K.).

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Correspondence to Saeed R. Khan.

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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Khan, S., Pearle, M., Robertson, W. et al. Kidney stones. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2, 16008 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrdp.2016.8

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