Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Perspective
  • Published:

Designing DNA nanodevices for compatibility with the immune system of higher organisms

Nature Nanotechnology volume 10, pages 741–747 (2015)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

DNA is proving to be a powerful scaffold to construct molecularly precise designer DNA devices. Recent trends reveal their ever-increasing deployment within living systems as delivery devices that not only probe but also program and re-program a cell, or even whole organisms. Given that DNA is highly immunogenic, we outline the molecular, cellular and organismal response pathways that designer nucleic acid nanodevices are likely to elicit in living systems. We address safety issues applicable when such designer DNA nanodevices interact with the immune system. In light of this, we discuss possible molecular programming strategies that could be integrated with such designer nucleic acid scaffolds to either evade or stimulate the host response with a view to optimizing and widening their applications in higher organisms.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1: DNA and its various nanostructured forms.
Figure 2: Natural mechanisms to detect and dispose of foreign DNA by host cells.
Figure 3: Targeting and delivery of DNA nanostructures in vivo.
Figure 4: Strategies to tune stability of designer DNA nanodevices to tailor host immune responses.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Jones, M. R., Seeman, N. C. & Mirkin, C. A. Programmable materials and the nature of the DNA bond. Science 347, 1260901 (2015). We recommend this paper as an introduction to advances in DNA nanotechnology.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Krishnan, Y. & Bathe, M. Designer nucleic acids to probe and program the cell. Trends Cell Biol. 22, 624–633 (2012).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Fu, Y. & He, C. Nucleic acid modifications with epigenetic significance. Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 16, 516–524 (2012).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Frost, L. S., Leplae, R., Summers, A. O. & Toussaint, A. Mobile genetic elements: the agents of open source evolution. Nature Rev. Microbiol. 3, 722–732 (2005).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Bickle, T. A. & Krüger, D. H. Biology of DNA restriction. Microbiol. Rev. 57, 434–450 (1993).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Makarova, K. S., Wolf, Y. I. & Koonin, E. V. Comparative genomics of defense systems in archaea and bacteria. Nucleic Acids Res. 41, 4360–4377 (2013).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Mao, S., Sun, W. & Kissel, T. Chitosan-based formulations for delivery of DNA and siRNA. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 62, 12–27 (2010).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Xu, C.-X. et al. V-shaped dinuclear Pt(II) complexes: selective interaction with human telomeric G-quadruplex and significant inhibition towards telomerase. Sci. Rep. 3, 2060 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  9. Guéron, M. & Leroy, J. L. The i-motif in nucleic acids. Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol. 10, 326–331 (2000).

    Google Scholar 

  10. Cutler, J. I., Auyeung, E. & Mirkin, C. A. Spherical nucleic acids. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 134, 1376–1391 (2012).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Rothemund, P. W. K. Folding DNA to create nanoscale shapes and patterns. Nature 440, 297–302 (2006).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Horvath, P. & Barrangou, R. CRISPR/Cas, the immune system of bacteria and archaea. Science 327, 167–70 (2010).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Goubau, D., Deddouche, S. & Reis e Sousa, C. Cytosolic sensing of viruses. Immunity 38, 855–869 (2013).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Wu, J. & Chen, Z. J. Innate immune sensing and signaling of cytosolic nucleic acids. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 32, 461–488 (2014). References 13 and 14 provide an overview of the mechanisms of detection of nucleic acids and related immune responses.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Ivashkiv, L. B. & Donlin, L. T. Regulation of type I interferon responses. Nature Rev. Immunol. 14, 36–49 (2014).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Eldridge, M. J. & Shenoy, A. R. Antimicrobial inflammasomes: unified signalling against diverse bacterial pathogens. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 23, 32–41 (2015).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Lupfer, C., Malik, A. & Kanneganti, T.-D. Inflammasome control of viral infection. Curr. Opin. Virol. 12, 38–46 (2015). Host responses to nucleic acids via the interferon and caspase-1 inflammasome pathways are summarized in refs 15–17.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Desmet, C. J. & Ishii, K. J. Nucleic acid sensing at the interface between innate and adaptive immunity in vaccination. Nature Rev. Immunol. 12, 479–491 (2012).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Holm, C. K., Paludan, S. R. & Fitzgerald, K. A. DNA recognition in immunity and disease. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 25, 13–18 (2013).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Atianand, M. K., Rathinam, V. A. & Fitzgerald, K. A. SnapShot: inflammasomes. Cell 153, 272–272.e1 (2013).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Burdette, D. L. & Vance, R. E. STING and the innate immune response to nucleic acids in the cytosol. Nature Immunol. 14, 19–26 (2013).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Sun, L., Wu, J., Du, F., Chen, X. & Chen, Z. J. Cyclic GMP-AMP synthase is a cytosolic DNA sensor that activates the type I interferon pathway. Science 339, 786–791 (2013).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Ablasser, A. et al. cGAS produces a 2′-5′-linked cyclic dinucleotide second messenger that activates STING. Nature 498, 380–384 (2013).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Bhat, N. & Fitzgerald, K. A. Recognition of cytosolic DNA by cGAS and other STING-dependent sensors. Eur. J. Immunol. 44, 634–640 (2014).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Chiu, Y.-H., Macmillan, J. B. & Chen, Z. J. RNA polymerase III detects cytosolic DNA and induces type I interferons through the RIG-I pathway. Cell 138, 576–591 (2009).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Yang, P. et al. The cytosolic nucleic acid sensor LRRFIP1 mediates the production of type I interferon via a β-catenin-dependent pathway. Nature Immunol. 11, 487–494 (2010).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Wagner, H. The sweetness of the DNA backbone drives Toll-like receptor 9. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 20, 396–400 (2008).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Krieg, A. M. Therapeutic potential of Toll-like receptor 9 activation. Nature Rev. Drug Discov. 5, 471–484 (2006). Molecular determinants of TLR9-activating dsDNA and their potential application in vaccine design are discussed in refs 27 and 28.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Jin, T. et al. Structures of the HIN domain:DNA complexes reveal ligand binding and activation mechanisms of the AIM2 inflammasome and IFI16 receptor. Immunity 36, 561–571 (2012).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Gehrke, N. et al. Oxidative damage of DNA confers resistance to cytosolic nuclease TREX1 degradation and potentiates STING-dependent immune sensing. Immunity 39, 482–495 (2013).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Gilliet, M., Cao, W. & Liu, Y.-J. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells: sensing nucleic acids in viral infection and autoimmune diseases. Nature Rev. Immunol. 8, 594–606 (2008).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Huang, L. et al. Cutting edge: DNA sensing via the STING adaptor in myeloid dendritic cells induces potent tolerogenic responses. J. Immunol. 191, 3509–3513 (2013).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Radovic-Moreno, A. F. et al. Immunomodulatory spherical nucleic acids. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 112, 3892–3897 (2015).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Nagata, S. DNA degradation in development and programmed cell death. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 23, 853–875 (2005).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Atianand, M. K. & Fitzgerald, K. A. Molecular basis of DNA recognition in the immune system. J. Immunol. 190, 1911–1918 (2013).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Lee-Kirsch, M. A. et al. Mutations in the gene encoding the 3′-5′ DNA exonuclease TREX1 are associated with systemic lupus erythematosus. Nature Genet. 39, 1065–1067 (2007).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Crow, Y. J. et al. Mutations in the gene encoding the 3′-5′ DNA exonuclease TREX1 cause Aicardi-Goutières syndrome at the AGS1 locus. Nature Genet. 38, 917–920 (2006).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Kawane, K. et al. Chronic polyarthritis caused by mammalian DNA that escapes from degradation in macrophages. Nature 443, 998–1002 (2006).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Gall, A. et al. Autoimmunity initiates in nonhematopoietic cells and progresses via lymphocytes in an interferon-dependent autoimmune disease. Immunity 36, 120–131 (2012).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Stetson, D. B., Ko, J. S., Heidmann, T. & Medzhitov, R. Trex1 prevents cell-intrinsic initiation of autoimmunity. Cell 134, 587–598 (2008). The importance of DNAses in preventing systemic inflammation is discussed in this study.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Chitrabamrung, S., Rubin, R. L. & Tan, E. M. Serum deoxyribonuclease I and clinical activity in systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatol. Int. 1, 55–60 (1981).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Martínez Valle, F., Balada, E., Ordi-Ros, J. & Vilardell-Tarres, M. DNase 1 and systemic lupus erythematosus. Autoimmun. Rev. 7, 359–363 (2008).

    Google Scholar 

  43. Yoshida, H., Okabe, Y., Kawane, K., Fukuyama, H. & Nagata, S. Lethal anemia caused by interferon-β produced in mouse embryos carrying undigested DNA. Nature Immunol. 6, 49–56 (2005).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Ahn, J., Gutman, D., Saijo, S. & Barber, G. N. STING manifests self DNA-dependent inflammatory disease. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 109, 19386–19391 (2012).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Bhatia, D., Surana, S., Chakraborty, S., Koushika, S. P. & Krishnan, Y. A synthetic icosahedral DNA-based host–cargo complex for functional in vivo imaging. Nature Commun. 2, 339 (2011). The first description of tissue-specific cargo delivery in vivo using a DNA nanodevice.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Lee, H. et al. Molecularly self-assembled nucleic acid nanoparticles for targeted in vivo siRNA delivery. Nature Nanotech. 7, 389–393 (2012). This report describes a DNA nanodevice that delivers RNAi to tumours in vivo.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Surana, S., Bhat, J. M., Koushika, S. P. & Krishnan, Y. An autonomous DNA nanomachine maps spatiotemporal pH changes in a multicellular living organism. Nature Commun. 2, 340 (2011). The first designer DNA nanodevice that was delivered tissue-specifically in vivo where it functioned as a pH reporter.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Surana, S., Bhatia, D. & Krishnan, Y. A method to study in vivo stability of DNA nanostructures. Methods 64, 94–100 (2013).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Antony, A. C. Folate receptors. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 16, 501–521 (1996).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Liu, X. et al. A DNA nanostructure platform for directed assembly of synthetic vaccines. Nano Lett. 12, 4254–4259 (2012).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Gupta, S. et al. Oral delivery of therapeutic proteins and peptides: a review on recent developments. Drug Deliv. 20, 237–246 (2013).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Longmire, M., Choyke, P. L. & Kobayashi, H. Clearance properties of nano-sized particles and molecules as imaging agents: considerations and caveats. Nanomedicine 3, 703–717 (2008).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Ali, J. et al. Potential of nanoparticulate drug delivery systems by intranasal administration. Curr. Pharm. Des. 16, 1644–1653 (2010).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Dhuria, S. V., Hanson, L. R. & Frey, W. H. Intranasal delivery to the central nervous system: mechanisms and experimental considerations. J. Pharm. Sci. 99, 1654–1673 (2010).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Harmon, B. T. et al. Intranasal administration of plasmid DNA nanoparticles yields successful transfection and expression of a reporter protein in rat brain. Gene Ther. 21, 514–521 (2014).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Ding, X.-Q. et al. Ocular delivery of compacted DNA-nanoparticles does not elicit toxicity in the mouse retina. PLoS One 4, e7410 (2009).

    Google Scholar 

  57. Farjo, R., Skaggs, J., Quiambao, A. B., Cooper, M. J. & Naash, M. I. Efficient non-viral ocular gene transfer with compacted DNA nanoparticles. PLoS One 1, e38 (2006).

    Google Scholar 

  58. Ziady, A.-G. et al. Transfection of airway epithelium by stable PEGylated poly-L-lysine DNA nanoparticles in vivo. Mol. Ther. 8, 936–947 (2003).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Yurek, D. M. et al. DNA nanoparticles: detection of long-term transgene activity in brain using bioluminescence imaging. Mol. Imaging 10, 327–339 (2011).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Dai, H. et al. Chitosan-DNA nanoparticles delivered by intrabiliary infusion enhance liver-targeted gene delivery. Int. J. Nanomedicine 1, 507–522 (2006).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. El-Sayed, A. & Harashima, H. Endocytosis of gene delivery vectors: from clathrin-dependent to lipid raft-mediated endocytosis. Mol. Ther. 21, 1118–1130 (2013).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Arteaga, C. L. & Engelman, J. A. ERBB receptors: from oncogene discovery to basic science to mechanism-based cancer therapeutics. Cancer Cell 25, 282–303 (2014).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Modi, S., Nizak, C., Surana, S., Halder, S. & Krishnan, Y. Two DNA nanomachines map pH changes along intersecting endocytic pathways inside the same cell. Nature Nanotech. 8, 459–467 (2013).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Saha, S., Prakash, V., Halder, S., Chakraborty, K. & Krishnan, Y. A pH-independent DNA nanodevice for quantifying chloride transport in organelles of living cells. Nature Nanotech. 10, 645–651 (2015).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Ewert, K. K. et al. Cationic liposome-nucleic acid complexes for gene delivery and silencing: pathways and mechanisms for plasmid DNA and siRNA. Top. Curr. Chem. 296, 191–226 (2010).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Doshi, N. & Mitragotri, S. Macrophages recognize size and shape of their targets. PLoS One 5, e10051 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  67. Walsh, A. S., Yin, H., Erben, C. M., Wood, M. J. A. & Turberfield, A. J. DNA cage delivery to mammalian cells. ACS Nano 5, 5427–5432 (2011).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Bhatia, D. et al. Icosahedral DNA nanocapsules by modular assembly. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 48, 4134–4137 (2009).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Millart, H., Durlach, V. & Durlach, J. Red blood cell magnesium concentrations: analytical problems and significance. Magnes. Res. 8, 65–76 (1995).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Sobczak, J.-P. J., Martin, T. G., Gerling, T. & Dietz, H. Rapid folding of DNA into nanoscale shapes at constant temperature. Science 338, 1458–1461 (2012).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Wei, B., Dai, M. & Yin, P. Complex shapes self-assembled from single-stranded DNA tiles. Nature 485, 623–626 (2012).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Hahn, J., Wickham, S. F. J., Shih, W. M. & Perrault, S. D. Addressing the instability of DNA nanostructures in tissue culture. ACS Nano 8, 8765–8775 (2014).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Douglas, S. M. et al. Self-assembly of DNA into nanoscale three-dimensional shapes. Nature 459, 414–418 (2009).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Liedl, T., Högberg, B., Tytell, J., Ingber, D. E. & Shih, W. M. Self-assembly of three-dimensional prestressed tensegrity structures from DNA. Nature Nanotech. 5, 520–524 (2010).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Perrault, S. & Shih, W. Virus-inspired membrane encapsulation of DNA nanostructures to achieve in vivo stability. ACS Nano 8, 5132–5140 (2014).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Chen, J. H. & Seeman, N. C. Synthesis from DNA of a molecule with the connectivity of a cube. Nature 350, 631–633 (1991).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Keum, J.-W. & Bermudez, H. Enhanced resistance of DNA nanostructures to enzymatic digestion. Chem. Commun. 45, 7036–7038 (2009).

    Google Scholar 

  78. Conway, J. W., McLaughlin, C. K., Castor, K. J. & Sleiman, H. DNA nanostructure serum stability: greater than the sum of its parts. Chem. Commun. 49, 1172–1174 (2013).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Dohno, C., Okamoto, A. & Saito, I. Stable, specific, and reversible base pairing via Schiff base. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 127, 16681–16684 (2005).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Tomás-Gamasa, M., Serdjukow, S., Su, M., Müller, M. & Carell, T. 'Post-it' type connected DNA created with a reversible covalent cross-link. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 54, 796–800 (2015).

    Google Scholar 

  81. D'Alonzo, D., Guaragna, A. & Palumbo, G. Exploring the role of chirality in nucleic acid recognition. Chem. Biodivers. 8, 373–413 (2011).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Hyrup, B. & Nielsen, P. E. Peptide nucleic acids (PNA): synthesis, properties and potential applications. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 4, 5–23 (1996).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Leumann, C. J. Sugar modification as a means to increase the biological performance of oligonucleotides. Vol. 50 Nucleic Acids Symp. Series (Oxf). 55–56 (2006).

    Google Scholar 

  84. Liu, J. et al. Fabrication of stable and RNase-resistant RNA nanoparticles active in gearing the nanomotors for viral DNA packaging. ACS Nano 5, 237–246 (2011).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Uhlmann, E. Peptide nucleic acids (PNA) and PNA-DNA chimeras: from high binding affinity towards biological function. Biol. Chem. 379, 1045–1052 (1998).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Lesnik, E. A. & Freier, S. M. Relative thermodynamic stability of DNA, RNA, and DNA:RNA hybrid duplexes: relationship with base composition and structure. Biochemistry 34, 10807–10815 (1995).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Owczarzy, R., You, Y., Groth, C. L. & Tataurov, A. V. Stability and mismatch discrimination of locked nucleic acid-DNA duplexes. Biochemistry 50, 9352–9367 (2011).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Schüller, V. J. et al. Cellular immunostimulation by CpG-sequence-coated DNA origami structures. ACS Nano 5, 9696–9702 (2011).

    Google Scholar 

  89. Greenland, J. R. & Letvin, N. L. Chemical adjuvants for plasmid DNA vaccines. Vaccine 25, 3731–3741 (2007).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Huang, L. et al. Engineering DNA nanoparticles as immunomodulatory reagents that activate regulatory T cells. J. Immunol. 188, 4913–4920 (2012).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Kaminski, J. J. et al. Synthetic oligodeoxynucleotides containing suppressive TTAGGG motifs inhibit AIM2 inflammasome activation. J. Immunol. 191, 3876–3883 (2013). This report identified DNA motifs that could be used to inhibit the AIM2 receptor-dependent inflammatory pathways.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Engelmann, I. & Pujol, N. Innate immunity in C. elegans. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 708, 105–121 (2010).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Hoffmann, J. A. The immune response of Drosophila. Nature 426, 33–38 (2003).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Novoa, B. & Figueras, A. Current topics in innate immunity II. Advances in experimental medicine and biology 946, 253–275 (2012).

  95. Langevin, C. et al. The antiviral innate immune response in fish: evolution and conservation of the IFN system. J. Mol. Biol. 425, 4904–4920 (2013).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Douglas, S. M., Bachelet, I. & Church, G. M. A logic-gated nanorobot for targeted transport of molecular payloads. Science 335, 831–834 (2012). This paper describes a DNA cargo-hold that delivers payloads triggered by molecular logic.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Zhao, Y. -X. et al. DNA Origami delivery system for cancer therapy with tunable release properties. ACS Nano 6, 8684–8691 (2012).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Lee, J. B. et al. Multifunctional nanoarchitectures from DNA-based ABC monomers. Nature Nanotech. 4, 430–436 (2009).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Kim, D.-N., Kilchherr, F., Dietz, H. & Bathe, M. Quantitative prediction of 3D solution shape and flexibility of nucleic acid nanostructures. Nucleic Acids Res. 40, 2862–2868 (2012).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Pan, K. et al. Lattice-free prediction of three-dimensional structure of programmed DNA assemblies. Nature Commun. 5, 5578 (2014).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. He, Y. et al. Hierarchical self-assembly of DNA into symmetrical supramolecular polyhedra. Nature 452, 198–201 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  102. Goodman, R. P. et al. Rapid chiral assembly of rigid DNA building blocks for molecular nanofabrication. Science 310, 1661–1665 (2005).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

A.R.S. acknowledges funds from the Royal Society (RG130811), the Wellcome Trust and Imperial College London start-up funds. Y.K. acknowledges the Wellcome-Trust DBT India Alliance (500095/Z/09/Z), HFSP Organisation (RGP0029/2014) and the University of Chicago start-up funds. The authors are grateful to A. Turberfield and J. Bath for high-resolution versions of Fig. 4(i). We appreciate feedback from numerous colleagues, and sincerely apologize to those authors whose work could not be included due to space limitations. In memory of our inspirational colleague, the late Professor Obaid Siddiqi.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Chemistry, University of Chicago, 929 East 57th Street, Chicago, 60637, Illinois, USA

    Sunaina Surana & Yamuna Krishnan

  2. Section of Microbiology, Medical Research Council Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London, SW7 2AZ, UK

    Avinash R. Shenoy

  3. National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, GKVK-UAS, Bellary Road, Bangalore, 560065, India

    Yamuna Krishnan

Authors
  1. Sunaina Surana
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Avinash R. Shenoy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Yamuna Krishnan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors contributed equally in writing the manuscript.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Avinash R. Shenoy or Yamuna Krishnan.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Surana, S., Shenoy, A. & Krishnan, Y. Designing DNA nanodevices for compatibility with the immune system of higher organisms. Nature Nanotech 10, 741–747 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2015.180

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2015.180

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing