Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Original Article
  • Published:

Potential health impacts of changes in air pollution exposure associated with moving traffic into a road tunnel

Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology volume 25, pages 524–531 (2015)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

A planned 21 km bypass (18 km within a tunnel) in Stockholm is expected to reduce ambient air exposure to traffic emissions, but same time tunnel users could be exposed to high concentrations of pollutants. For the health impacts calculations in 2030, the change in annual ambient NOX and PM10 exposure of the general population was modelled in 100 × 100 m2 grids for Greater Stockholm area. The tunnel exposure was estimated based on calculated annual average NOX concentrations, time spent in tunnel and number of tunnel users. For the general population, we estimate annually 23.7 (95% CI: 17.7–32.3) fewer premature deaths as ambient concentrations are reduced. At the same time, tunnel users will be exposed to NOX levels up to 2000 μg/m−3. Passing through the whole tunnel two times on working days would correspond to an additional annual NOX exposure of 9.6 μg/m3. Assuming that there will be ~55,000 vehicles daily each way and 1.3 persons of 30–74 years of age in each vehicle, we estimate the tunnel exposure to result in 20.6 (95% CI: 14.1–25.6) premature deaths annually. If there were more persons per vehicle, or older and vulnerable people travelling, or tunnel dispersion conditions worsen, the adverse effect would become larger.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. HEI. panel on the Health Effects of Traffic-Related Air Pollution. Traffic-Related Air Pollution: A Critical Review of the Literature on Emissions, Exposure, and Health Effects HEI Special Report 17. Health Effect Institute: Boston, MA 2010.

  2. Kaur S, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Colvile RN . Fine particulate matter and carbon monoxide exposure concentrations in urban street transport microenvironments. Atmos Environ 2007; 41: 4781–4810.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Belkic K., Emdal R., Theorell T . Occupational profile and cardiac risk: possible mechanisms and implications for professional drivers. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health 1998; 11: 37–57.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Tüchsen F, Engdahl LA . Increasing inequality and ischemic heart disease morbidity among employed men in Denmark 1981-1993. The need for a new preventive policy. International Journal of Epidemiology 1999; 28: 640–644.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Hansen J, Raaschou-Nielsen O, Olsen JH . Increased risk of lung cancer among different types of professional drivers in Denmark. Occup Environ Med 1998; 55: 115–118.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Zhou W, Yuan D, Ye S, Qi P, Fu C, Christiani DC . Health effects of occupational exposures to vehicle emissions in Shanghai. Int J Occup Environ Health 2001; 7: 23–30.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. WHO Review of Evidence on Health Aspects of Air Pollution—REVIHAAP Project: Final Technical Report. WHO: Bonn, Germany. 2013.

  8. Pope CA, 3rd, Burnett RT, Thun MJ, Calle EE, Krewski D, Ito K et al. Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. JAMA 2002; 287: 1132–1141.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Jerrett M, Burnett RT, Ma R, Pope CA, 3rd, Krewski D, Newbold KB et al. Spatial analysis of air pollution and mortality in Los Angeles. Epidemiology 2005; 16: 727–736.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Smith KR, Jerrett M, Anderson HR, Burnett RT, Stone V, Derwent R et al. Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: health implications of short-lived greenhouse pollutants. Lancet 2009; 374: 2091–2103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Brunekreef B, Forsberg B . Epidemiological evidence of effects of coarse airborne particles on health. Eur Respir J 2005; 26: 309–318.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Meister K, Johansson C, Forsberg B . Estimated short-term effects of coarse particles on daily mortality in Stockholm, Sweden. Environ Health Perspect 2012; 120: 431–436.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Anenberg SC, Horowitz LW, Tong DQ, West JJ . An estimate of the global burden of anthropogenic ozone and fine particulate matter on premature human mortality using atmospheric modeling. Environ Health Perspect 2010; 118: 1189–1195.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Boldo E, Medina S, LeTertre A, Hurley F, Mucke HG, Ballester F et al. Apheis: Health impact assessment of long-term exposure to PM(2.5) in 23 European cities. Eur J Epidemiol 2006; 21: 449–458.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Kunzli N, Kaiser R, Medina S, Studnicka M, Chanel O, Filliger P et al. Public-health impact of outdoor and traffic-related air pollution: a European assessment. Lancet 2000; 356: 795–801.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Pascal M, Corso M, Chanel O, Declercq C, Badaloni C, Cesaroni G et al. Assessing the public health impacts of urban air pollution in 25 European cities: results of the Aphekom project. Sci Total Environ 2013; 449: 390–400.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Orru H, Teinemaa E, Lai T, Tamm T, Kaasik M, Kimmel V et al. Health impact assessment of particulate pollution in Tallinn using fine spatial resolution and modeling techniques. Environ Health 2009; 8: 8–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Johansson C, Burman L, Forsberg B . The effects of congestions tax on air quality and health. Atmos Environ 2009; 43: 4843–4854.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Johansson C, Norman M, Gidhagen L . Spatial & temporal variations of PM10 and particle number concentrations in urban air. Environ Monit Assess 2007; 127: 477–487.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Wexler AS, Lurmann FW, Seinfeld JH . Modelling urban and regional aerosols. Model development. Atmos Environ 1994; 28: 531–546.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Beser-Hugosson M . Quantifying uncertainties in a national forecasting model. Transport Res Part A 2005; 39: 531–547.

    Google Scholar 

  22. de Jong G, Daly A, Pieters M, Miller S, Plasmeijer R, Hofman F . Uncertainty in traffic forecasts: literature review and new results for The Netherlands. Transportation 2007; 34: 375–395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Sjödin Å, Ekström M, Hammarström U, Yahya M-R, Ericsson E, Larsson H et al. Implementation and Evaluation of the ARTEMIS Road Model for Sweden’s International Reporting Obligations on Air Emissions. In: Arcueil F (ed). Second Conference of Environment & Transport, incl 15th Conference of Transport and Air Pollution. INRETS: Reims, France. 2006, pp 375–382.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Omstedt G, Bringfelt B, Johansson C . A model for vehicle-induced non-tailpipe emissions of particles along Swedish roads. Atmos Environ 2005; 39: 6088–6097.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Ketzel M, Omstedt G, Johansson C, Düring I, Pohjola M, Oettl D et al. Estimation and validation of PM2.5/PM10 exhaust and non-exhaust emission factors for practical street pollution modelling. Atmos Environ 2007; 41: 9370–9385.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. SMHI Airviro User Documentation. Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute: Norrköping, Sweden. 1997.

  27. Kornartit C, Sokhi RS, Burton MA, Ravindra K . Activity pattern and personal exposure to nitrogen dioxide in indoor and outdoor microenvironments. Environ Int 2010; 36: 36–45.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Orru H, Maasikmets M, Lai T, Tamm T, Kaasik M, Kimmel V et al. Health impacts of particulate matter in five major Estonian towns: main sources of exposure and local differences. Air Qual Atmos Health 2012; 4: 247–258.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Nafstad P, Haheim LL, Wisloff T, Gram F, Oftedal B, Holme I et al. Urban air pollution and mortality in a cohort of Norwegian men. Environ Health Perspect 2004; 112: 610–615.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Atkinson RW, Anderson HR, Medina S, Iñiguez C, Forsberg B, Segerstedt B (eds) Analysis of All-Age Respiratory Hospital Admissions and Particulate Air Pollution Within the Apheis Programme. Institut de Veille Sanitaire: Saint-Maurice, France. 2005.

  31. COMEAP Cardiovascular Disease and Air Pollution. A Report by the Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollutants. Department of Health: UK. 2006.

  32. Nerhagen L, Bellander T, Forsberg B . Air Pollution and Children’s Health in Sweden. Report No. 6585. Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Stockholm, Sweden. 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Bjerg A, Sandstrom T, Lundback B, Ronmark E . Time trends in asthma and wheeze in Swedish children 1996–2006: prevalence and risk factors by sex. Allergy 2010; 65: 48–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Zhang J, Yu KF . What’s the relative risk?: A method of correcting the odds ratio in cohort studies of common outcomes. JAMA 1998; 280: 1690–1691.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Modig L, Toren K, Janson C, Jarvholm B, Forsberg B . Vehicle exhaust outside the home and onset of asthma among adults. Eur Respir J 2009; 33: 1261–1267.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Schindler C, Keidel D, Gerbase MW, Zemp E, Bettschart R, Brandli O et al. Improvements in PM10 exposure and reduced rates of respiratory symptoms in a cohort of Swiss adults (SAPALDIA). Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009; 179: 579–587.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Johansson C, Silvergren S, Norman M, Sjövall B . Halter av partiklar och NOx i fordon i relation till omgivnings luftens halter. Underlag för skattning av trafikantexponering. SLB-analys: Stockholm, Sweden. 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Hoek G, Hänninen O, Cyrys J . Indoor-Outdoor Relationships of Particle Number and Mass in European Cities. In: Viana M (ed). Urban Air Quality in Europe. The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry Vol. 26. Springer: Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany. 2013, pp 321–339.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  39. Hoek G, Kos G, Harrison R, de Hartog J, Meliefste K, ten Brink H et al. Indoor–outdoor relationships of particle number and mass in four European cities. Atmos Environ 2008; 42: 156–169.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Fuller CH, Brugge D, Williams PL, Mittleman MA, Lane K, Durant JL et al. Indoor and outdoor measurements of particle number concentration in near-highway homes. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2013; 23: 506–512.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Xu B, Zhu Y . Quantitative analysis of the parameters affecting In-Cabin to On-Roadway (I/O) ultrafine particle concentration ratios. Aerosol Sci Technol 2009; 43: 400–410.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Hudda N, Eckel SR, Knibbs LD, Sioutas C, Delfino RJ, Fruin SA . Linking in-vehicle ultrafine particle exposures to on-road concentrations. Atmos Environ 2012; 59: 578–586.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Wu DL, Lin M, Chan CY, Li WZ, Tao J, Li YP et al. Influences of commuting mode, air conditioning mode and meteorological parameters on fine particle (PM2.5) exposure levels in traffic microenvironments. Aerosol Air Qual Res 2013; 13: 709–720.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Burgan O, Smargiassi A, Perron S, Kosatsky T . Cardiovascular effects of sub-daily levels of ambient fine particles: a systematic review. Environ Health 2010; 9: 9–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Delfino RJ, Staimer N, Tjoa T, Arhami M, Polidori A, Gillen DL et al. Associations of primary and secondary organic aerosols with airway and systemic inflammation in an elderly panel cohort. Epidemiology 2010; 21: 892–902.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Schneider A, Hampel R, Ibald-Mulli A, Zareba W, Schmidt G, Schneider R et al. Changes in deceleration capacity of heart rate and heart rate variability induced by ambient air pollution in individuals with coronary artery disease. Part Fibre Toxicol 2010; 7: 29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Ghio AJ, Sobus JR, Pleil JD, Madden MC . Controlled human exposures to diesel exhaust Swiss Med Wkly 2012; 142: w13597.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Gong H, Jr, Linn WS, Clark KW, Anderson KR, Sioutas C, Alexis NE et al. Exposures of healthy and asthmatic volunteers to concentrated ambient ultrafine particles in Los Angeles. Inhal Toxicol 2008; 20: 533–545.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Graff DW, Cascio WE, Rappold A, Zhou H, Huang YC, Devlin RB . Exposure to concentrated coarse air pollution particles causes mild cardiopulmonary effects in healthy young adults. Environ Health Perspect 2009; 117: 1089–1094.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Adar SD, Adamkiewicz G, Gold DR, Schwartz J, Coull BA, Suh H . Ambient and microenvironmental particles and exhaled nitric oxide before and after a group bus trip. Environ Health Perspect 2007; 115: 507–512.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Adar SD, Gold DR, Coull BA, Schwartz J, Stone PH, Suh H . Focused exposures to airborne traffic particles and heart rate variability in the elderly. Epidemiology 2007; 18: 95–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Laumbach RJ, Rich DQ, Gandhi S, Amorosa L, Schneider S, Zhang J et al. Acute changes in heart rate variability in subjects with diabetes following a highway traffic exposure. J Occup Environ Med 2010; 52: 324–331.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Langrish JP, Li X, Wang S, Lee MM, Barnes GD, Miller MR et al. Reducing personal exposure to particulate air pollution improves cardiovascular health in patients with coronary heart disease. Environ Health Perspect 2012; 120: 367–372.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Weichenthal S, Kulka R, Dubeau A, Martin C, Wang D, Dales R . Traffic-related air pollution and acute changes in heart rate variability and respiratory function in urban cyclists. Environ Health Perspect 2011; 119: 1373–1378.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Dales R, Liu L, Szyszkowicz M, Dalipaj M, Willey J, Kulka R et al. Particulate air pollution and vascular reactivity: the bus stop study. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2007; 81: 159–164.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. McCreanor J, Cullinan P, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Stewart-Evans J, Malliarou E, Jarup L et al. Respiratory effects of exposure to diesel traffic in persons with asthma. N Engl J Med 2007; 357: 2348–2358.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Rundell KW, Hoffman JR, Caviston R, Bulbulian R, Hollenbach AM . Inhalation of ultrafine and fine particulate matter disrupts systemic vascular function. Inhal Toxicol 2007; 19: 133–140.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Larsson BM, Grunewald J, Sköld CM, Lundin A, Sandström T, Eklund A et al. Limited airway effects in mild asthmatics after exposure to air pollution in a road tunnel. Respir Med 2010; 104: 1912–1918.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Svartengren M, Strand V, Bylin G, Järup L, Pershagen G . Short-term exposure to air pollution in a road tunnel enhances the asthmatic response to allergen. Eur Respir J 2000; 15: 716–724.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Larsson BM, Sehlstedt M, Grunewald J, Sköld CM, Lundin A, Blomberg A et al. Road tunnel air pollution induces bronchoalveolar inflammation in healthy subjects. Eur Respir J 2007; 29: 699–705.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Hoek G, Brunekreef B, Goldbohm S, Fischer P, van den Brandt PA . Association between mortality and indicators of traffic-related air pollution in the Netherlands: a cohort study. Lancet 2002; 360: 1203–1209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Gehring U, Heinrich J, Kramer U, Grote V, Hochadel M, Sugiri D et al. Long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and cardiopulmonary mortality in women. Epidemiology 2006; 17: 545–551.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Heinrich J, Thiering E, Rzehak P, Kramer U, Hochadel M, Rauchfuss KM et al. Long-term exposure to NO2 and PM10 and all-cause and cause-specific mortality in a prospective cohort of women. Occup Environ Med 2012; 70: 179–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Filleul L, Rondeau V, Vandentorren S, Le Moual N, Cantagrel A, Annesi-Maesano I et al. Twenty five year mortality and air pollution: results from the French PAARC survey. Occup Environ Med 2005; 62: 453–460.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Hart JE, Garshick E, Dockery DW, Smith TJ, Ryan L, Laden F . Long-term ambient multipollutant exposures and mortality. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011; 183: 73–78.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Jerrett M, Finkelstein MM, Brook JR, Arain MA, Kanaroglou P, Stieb DM et al. A cohort study of traffic-related air pollution and mortality in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Environ Health Perspect 2009; 117: 772–777.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Scoggins A, Kjellstrom T, Fisher G, Connor J, Gimson N . Spatial analysis of annual air pollution exposure and mortality. Sci Total Environ 2004; 321: 71–85.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Gidhagen L, Engardt M, Lövenheim B, Johansson C . Modeling effects of climate change on air quality and population exposure in urban planning scenarios. Advances in Met 2012, 240894.

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by a grant from The Swedish Transport Administration and ERA-ENVHEALTH Project ACCEPTED. H. Orru was also supported by a Grant TARTH15017I from the Estonian Ministry of Education.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine, Umea University, Umea, Sweden

    Hans Orru & Bertil Forsberg

  2. Department of Public Health, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia

    Hans Orru

  3. Stockholm Environment and Health Administration, Stockholm, Sweden

    Boel Lövenheim & Christer Johansson

  4. Department of Applied Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden

    Christer Johansson

Authors
  1. Hans Orru
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Boel Lövenheim
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Christer Johansson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Bertil Forsberg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Hans Orru.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Orru, H., Lövenheim, B., Johansson, C. et al. Potential health impacts of changes in air pollution exposure associated with moving traffic into a road tunnel. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 25, 524–531 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1038/jes.2015.24

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/jes.2015.24

Keywords

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links