Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Original Article
  • Published:

Specific food group combinations explaining the variation in intakes of nutrients and other important food components in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition: an application of the reduced rank regression method

European Journal of Clinical Nutrition volume 63, pages S263–S274 (2009)Cite this article

Abstract

Objective:

To identify combinations of food groups that explain as much variation in absolute intakes of 23 key nutrients and food components as possible within the country-specific populations of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC).

Subjects/Methods:

The analysis covered single 24-h dietary recalls (24-HDR) from 36 034 subjects (13 025 men and 23 009 women), aged 35–74 years, from all 10 countries participating in the EPIC study. In a set of 39 food groups, reduced rank regression (RRR) was used to identify those combinations (RRR factors) that explain the largest proportion of variation in intake of 23 key nutrients and food components, namely, proteins, saturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, cholesterol, sugars (sum of mono- and disaccharides), starch, fibre, alcohol, calcium, iron, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, vitamin D, β-carotene, retinol and vitamins E, B1, B2, B6, B12 and C (RRR responses). Analyses were performed at the country level and for all countries combined.

Results:

In the country-specific analyses, the first RRR factor explained a considerable proportion of the total nutrient intake variation in all 10 countries (27.4–37.1%). The subsequent RRR factors were much less important in explaining the variation (⩽6%). Strong similarities were observed for the first country-specific RRR factor between the individual countries, largely characterized by consumption of bread, vegetable oils, red meat, milk, cheese, potatoes, margarine and processed meat. The highest explained variation was seen for protein, potassium, phosphorus and magnesium (50–70%), whereas sugars, β-carotene, retinol and alcohol were only marginally explained (⩽5%). The explained proportion of the other nutrients ranged between these extremes.

Conclusions:

A combination of food groups was identified that explained a considerable proportion of the nutrient intake variation in 24-HDRs in every country-specific EPIC population in a similar manner. This indicates that, despite the large variability in food and nutrient intakes reported in the EPIC, the variance of intake of important nutrients is explained, to a large extent, by similar food group combinations across countries.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1
Figure 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bingham S, Riboli E (2004). Diet and cancer—the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Nat Rev Cancer 4, 206–215.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brustad M, Skeie G, Braaten T, Slimani N, Lund E (2003). Comparison of telephone vs face-to-face interviews in the assessment of dietary intake by the 24 h recall EPIC SOFT program—the Norwegian calibration study. Eur J Clin Nutr 57, 107–113.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cust AE, Skilton MR, van Bakel MME, Halkjær J, Olsen A, Agnoli C et al. (2009). Total dietary carbohydrate, sugar, starch and fibre intakes in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Eur J Clin Nutr 63 (Suppl 4), S37–S60.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Halkjær J, Olsen A, Bjerregaard LJ, Deharveng G, Tjønneland A, Welch AA et al. (2009). Intake of total, animal and plant proteins, and their food sources in 10 countries in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Eur J Clin Nutr 63 (Suppl 4), S16–S36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hatcher L (1994). A Step-by-Step Approach to Using the SAS system for Factor Analysis and Structural Equation Modeling. SAS Institute Inc: Cary, North Carolina.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffmann K, Schulze MB, Schienkiewitz A, Nothlings U, Boeing H (2004). Application of a new statistical method to derive dietary patterns in nutritional epidemiology. Am J Epidemiol 159, 935–944.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hu FB (2002). Dietary pattern analysis: a new direction in nutritional epidemiology. Curr Opin Lipidol 13, 3–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jenab M, Salvini S, van Gils CH, Brustad M, Shakya-Shrestha S, Buijsse B et al. (2009). Dietary intakes of retinol, β-carotene, vitamin D and vitamin E in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition cohort. Eur J Clin Nutr 63 (Suppl 4), S150–S178.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Linseisen J, Welch AA, Ocké M, Amiano P, Agnoli C, Ferrari P (2009). Dietary fat intake in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition: results from the 24-hour dietary recalls. Eur J Clin Nutr 63 (Suppl 4), S61–S80.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Newby PK, Tucker KL (2004). Empirically derived eating patterns using factor or cluster analysis: a review. Nutr Rev 62, 177–203.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Olsen A, Halkjær J, van Gils CH, Buijsse B, Verhagen H, Jenab M et al. (2009). Dietary intake of the water-soluble vitamins B1, B2, B6, B12 and C in 10 countries in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Eur J Clin Nutr 63 (Suppl 4), S122–S149.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Riboli E, Hunt KJ, Slimani N, Ferrari P, Norat T, Fahey M et al. (2002). European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC): study populations and data collection. Public Health Nutr 5 (Suppl), S1113–S1124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schulze MB, Hoffmann K, Kroke A, Boeing H (2003). An approach to construct simplified measures of dietary patterns from exploratory factor analysis. Br J Nutr 89, 409–419.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sieri S, Krogh V, Saieva C, Grobbee DE, Bergmann M, Rohrmann S et al. (2009). Alcohol consumption patterns; diet and body weight in 10 European countries. Eur J Clin Nutr 63 (Suppl 4), S81–S100.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Skeie G, Braaten T, Hjartåker A, Lentjes M, Amiano P, Jakszyn P et al. (2009). Use of dietary supplements in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition calibration study. Eur J Clin Nutr 63 (Suppl 4), S226–S238.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Slimani N, Deharveng G, Charrondiere RU, van Kappel AL, Ocke MC, Welch A et al. (1999). Structure of the standardized computerized 24-h diet recall interview used as reference method in the 22 centers participating in the EPIC project. European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Comput Methods Programs Biomed 58, 251–266.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Slimani N, Deharveng G, Unwin I, Southgate DA, Vignat J, Skeie G et al. (2007). The EPIC nutrient database project (ENDB): a first attempt to standardize nutrient databases across the 10 European countries participating in the EPIC study. Eur J Clin Nutr 61, 1037–1056.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Slimani N, Fahey M, Welch AA, Wirfalt E, Stripp C, Bergstrom E et al. (2002a). Diversity of dietary patterns observed in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) project. Public Health Nutr 5 (Suppl), S1311–S1328.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slimani N, Ferrari P, Ocke M, Welch A, Boeing H, Liere M et al. (2000). Standardization of the 24-hour diet recall calibration method used in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC): general concepts and preliminary results. Eur J Clin Nutr 54, 900–917.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Slimani N, Kaaks R, Ferrari P, Casagrande C, Clavel-Chapelon F, Lotze G et al. (2002b). European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) calibration study: rationale, design and population characteristics. Public Health Nutr 5 (Suppl), S1125–S1145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Welch AA, Fransen H, Jenab M, Boutron-Ruault MC, Tumino R, Agnoli C et al. (2009). Variation in intakes of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron and potassium in 10 countries in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition study. Eur J Clin Nutr 63 (Suppl 4), S101–S121.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The work described in the paper was carried out with the financial support of the European Commission: Public Health and Consumer Protection Directorate 1993–2004; Research Directorate-General 2005; Ligue contre le Cancer (France); Société 3M (France); Mutuelle Générale de l’Education Nationale; Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM); Institut Gustave Roussy; German Cancer Aid; German Cancer Research Center; German Federal Ministry of Education and Research; Danish Cancer Society; Health Research Fund (FIS) of the Spanish Ministry of Health; Spanish Regional Governments of Andalucía, Asturias, Basque Country, Murcia and Navarra and the Catalan Institute of Oncology; and ISCIII RETIC (RD06/0020), Spain; Cancer Research UK; Medical Research Council, UK; the Stroke Association, UK; British Heart Foundation; Department of Health, UK; Food Standards Agency, UK; the Wellcome Trust, UK; Greek Ministry of Health; Hellenic Health Foundation; Italian Association for Research on Cancer; Italian National Research Council, Regione Sicilia (Sicilian government); Associazione Iblea per la Ricerca Epidemiologica—ONLUS (Hyblean association for epidemiological research, NPO); Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport; Dutch Prevention Funds; LK Research Funds; Dutch ZON (Zorg Onderzoek Nederland); World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF); Swedish Cancer Society; Swedish Research Council; Regional Government of Skane and the County Council of Vasterbotten, Sweden; Norwegian Cancer Society; the Norwegian Research Council and the Norwegian Foundation for Health and Rehabilitation. We thank Sarah Somerville, Nicole Suty and Karima Abdedayem for their assistance with editing, and Kimberley Bouckaert and Heinz Freisling for their technical assistance.

Author information

Author notes

  1. P Ferrari

    Present address: 27Current address: Data Collection and Exposure Unit (DATEX), European Food Safety Authority, Parma, Italy.,

  2. M B Schulze

    Present address: 28Current address: Public Health Nutrition Unit, Technische Universität München, Freising, Germany.,

  3. K Hoffmann and S Bingham: The authors are deceased.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Epidemiology, German Institute of Human Nutrition, Potsdam-Rehbrücke, Germany

    J Kröger, M Schulz, H Boeing, K Hoffmann, M B Schulze & T Pischon

  2. Dietary Exposure Assessment Group, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France

    P Ferrari, I Huybrechts & N Slimani

  3. Lifestyle and Cancer Group, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France

    M Jenab

  4. Department of Hygiene, Epidemiology and Medical Statistics, University of Athens, Medical School, Athens, Greece

    C Bamia, V Benetou, P Orfanos & E Oikonomou

  5. Inserm, ERI 20, Institut Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France

    M Touvier, M C Boutron-Ruault & M Niravong

  6. AFSSA (French Food Safety Agency), DERNS/PASER, Maisons-Alfort, France

    M Touvier

  7. National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands

    H B Bueno-de-Mesquita & M C Ocké

  8. Biostatistics Unit, Medical Research Council and University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

    M T Fahey

  9. Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden

    E Wirfält

  10. Division of Cancer Epidemiology, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany

    S Rohrmann

  11. Department of Surgery, Malmö University Hospital, Malmö, Sweden

    J Manjer

  12. Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine, Nutritional Research, University of Umeå, Umeå, Sweden

    A Agren

  13. Epidemiology Department, Murcia Health Council, Murcia

    C Navarro

  14. CIBER en Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Spain

    C Navarro

  15. Unit of Nutrition, Environment and Cancer, Cancer Epidemiology Research Programme, Catalan Institute of Oncology (ICO), Barcelona, Spain

    P Jakszyn

  16. University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Addenbrookes Hospital, Cambridge, UK

    K T Khaw

  17. Cancer Epidemiology Unit, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

    F Crowe

  18. Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center, Utrecht, The Netherlands

    Y T van der Schouw

  19. Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Naples, Federico II, Naples, Italy

    A Mattiello

  20. Department of Preventive & Predictive Medicine, Nutritional Epidemiology Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Milano, Italy

    M Bellegotti

  21. Institute of Community Medicine, University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway

    D Engeset

  22. Cancer Registry of Norway, Oslo, Norway

    A Hjartåker

  23. Institute of Cancer Epidemiology, Danish Cancer Society, Copenhagen, Denmark

    R Egeberg

  24. Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Aalborg Hospital, Aarhus University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark

    K Overvad

  25. Department of Epidemiology, Public Health and Primary Care, Imperial College, London, UK

    E Riboli

  26. Diet and Cancer Group, MRC Mitochondrial Biology Unit, Cambridge, UK

    S Bingham

  27. Department of Public Health and Primary Care, MRC Centre for Nutritional Epidemiology in Cancer Prevention and Survival, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

    S Bingham

Authors
  1. J Kröger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. P Ferrari
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. M Jenab
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. C Bamia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. M Touvier
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. H B Bueno-de-Mesquita
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. M T Fahey
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. V Benetou
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. M Schulz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. E Wirfält
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  11. H Boeing
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  12. K Hoffmann
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  13. M B Schulze
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  14. P Orfanos
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  15. E Oikonomou
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  16. I Huybrechts
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  17. S Rohrmann
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  18. T Pischon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  19. J Manjer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  20. A Agren
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  21. C Navarro
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  22. P Jakszyn
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  23. M C Boutron-Ruault
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  24. M Niravong
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  25. K T Khaw
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  26. F Crowe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  27. M C Ocké
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  28. Y T van der Schouw
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  29. A Mattiello
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  30. M Bellegotti
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  31. D Engeset
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  32. A Hjartåker
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  33. R Egeberg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  34. K Overvad
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  35. E Riboli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  36. S Bingham
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  37. N Slimani
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to J Kröger.

Additional information

Guarantor: J Kröger.

Contributors: JK carried out the statistical analyses, prepared the tables and figures, and wrote the paper, taking into account comments from all co-authors. NS was the overall coordinator of this project and of the EPIC Nutrient DataBase (ENDB) project. JK, PF, MJ, CB, MT, HBB-d-M, MTF, VB, MS, EW, HB, KH and MBS were members of the writing group and gave input on the statistical analyses, drafting of the manuscript and interpretation of results. The other co-authors were local EPIC collaborators who participated in the collection of dietary and other data, and in the ENDB project. ER is the overall coordinator of the EPIC study. All co-authors provided comments and suggestions on the manuscript and approved the final version.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Kröger, J., Ferrari, P., Jenab, M. et al. Specific food group combinations explaining the variation in intakes of nutrients and other important food components in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition: an application of the reduced rank regression method. Eur J Clin Nutr 63 (Suppl 4), S263–S274 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2009.85

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2009.85

Keywords

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links