Key Points
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Several models have been proposed to account for the neurocognitive basis of the mental lexicon (a repository of stored words) and the mental grammar (which captures the regularities of language). The declarative/procedural model argues that lexicon and language depend on two neural systems that are intensively studied in the context of memory: declarative and procedural memory.
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The declarative/procedural model links lexicon with the declarative system and with brain structures in temporal/temporoparietal regions. On the other hand, the model links grammar with the procedural system, and with structures in the basal ganglia and frontal cortex.
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The declarative/procedural model makes a set of specific predictions about the neurocognitive basis of lexicon and grammar, regarding their separability, computation, domain generality and localization. These predictions, which have been thoroughly tested in the context of the use of regular versus irregular word forms (walk–walked versus go–went), have been helpful in contrasting this model with other competing perspectives.
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Several lines of evidence support the declarative/procedural model over alternative views. This evidence has come from psycholinguistic studies, the analysis of developmental disorders of language, neurological cases, haemodynamic studies and neurophysiological observations. Collectively, the data show a double dissociation. On the one hand, there is a link between lexicon, associative-memory markers, the knowledge of facts and events, and temporal/temporoparietal regions. On the other, there is a link between grammar, motor and cognitive skills, and structures in the frontal lobe and the basal ganglia.
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The declarative/procedural model has several implications. First, studies of declarative and procedural memory should help to elucidate the neural bases of lexicon and grammar, and vice versa. Second, the model has clinical implications for people with developmental or adult-onset disorders of grammar, as they might recover through the memorization of complex forms using the declarative system. Last, the existence of systems that subserve language in humans and are homologous to systems present in other animals has implications for the evolution of language.
Abstract
What are the psychological, computational and neural underpinnings of language? Are these neurocognitive correlates dedicated to language? Do different parts of language depend on distinct neurocognitive systems? Here I address these and other issues that are crucial for our understanding of two fundamental language capacities: the memorization of words in the mental lexicon, and the rule-governed combination of words by the mental grammar. According to the declarative/procedural model, the mental lexicon depends on declarative memory and is rooted in the temporal lobe, whereas the mental grammar involves procedural memory and is rooted in the frontal cortex and basal ganglia. I argue that the declarative/procedural model provides a new framework for the study of lexicon and grammar.
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Acknowledgements
Support was provided by a McDonnell-Pew grant in Cognitive Neuroscience, and by grants from the National Institutes of Health, the National Science Foundation and the Department of Defence.
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FURTHER INFORMATION
Glossary
- INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY
-
The modification of a word to fit its grammatical role. For example, 'sang' and 'walked' are inflected in the past tense.
- DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY
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The creation of new words. For example, the nouns 'solemnity' and 'toughness' are derived from the adjectives solemn and tough, respectively.
- DOUBLE DISSOCIATION
-
A double dissociation is observed when two different tasks lead to complementary patterns in behaviour or brain activation. Task X is normal in patient A but not patient B, whereas task Y is normal in patient B but not in A. Similarly, in scanning healthy subjects, task X leads to activation in one brain area but not another, whereas task Y shows the opposite pattern.
- FREQUENCY EFFECTS
-
Words stored in memory are remembered better and faster if they have been more frequently encountered.
- PRIMING
-
A word is recognized faster if it has been primed by an earlier presentation of the same word.
- WILLIAMS' SYNDROME
-
A hereditary developmental disorder characterized by cognitive impairment (usually mild mental retardation), distinctive facial features and cardiovascular disease.
- APHASIA
-
Language impairments acquired as a result of stroke or other brain injury.
- AGRAMMATISM
-
Syntactic and morphological impairments in production and comprehension, including those in the use of free and bound grammatical morphemes (auxiliaries, determiners, and affixes such as '-ed').
- IDEOMOTOR APRAXIA
-
An impairment in the expression of motor skills. Patients with ideomotor apraxia have problems with imitation, pantomime and tool use.
- ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA
-
The inability to store new information in long-term memory.
- RETROGRADE AMNESIA
-
Loss of or inability to recall information that was previously stored in long-term memory.
- H.M.
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Arguably the best-studied patient in the literature on memory, H.M. became amnesic after the bilateral resection of large parts of the temporal lobe in an attempt to treat epilepsy episodes. The analysis of H.M.'s amnesia provided a clear dissociation between declarative and procedural memory.
- MAGNETOENCEPHALOGRAPHY
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A non-invasive technique that allows the detection of the changing magnetic fields that are associated with brain activity. As the magnetic fields of the brain are very weak, extremely sensitive magnetic detectors known as superconducting quantum interference devices, which work at very low, superconducting temperatures (−269 °C), are used to pick up the signal.
- DIPOLE MODELLING
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A method to determine the location of the sources that underlie the responses measured in a magnetoencephalographic experiment. It provides an estimate of the location, orientation and strength of the source as a function of time after the stimulus was presented.
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Ullman, M. A neurocognitive perspective on language: The declarative/procedural model. Nat Rev Neurosci 2, 717–726 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1038/35094573
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/35094573